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THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK. 


MAY  2  0  1987 


100M/7-85 


*^£c<£4<i*j&rts  £/<xst-£^>£<£?*^~  &*^?  y<£> 


GUTTA    CAVAT    L»PIDEM     NON    VI    SED     S/EPE    CA  D  E  N  DO. -- HOR  AT. 


NOT  BY   FORCE,    BY   FREQUENT   FALL  ALONE 
A   DROP   IN   TIME  CARVES   OUT   A   STONE. 


THE  FLORA  OF  TENNESSEE 


AND 


A  PHILOSOPHY  OF  BOTANY 


RESPECTFULLY 
DEDICATED 


TO   THE   CITIZENS   OF   TENNESSEE 


BY 

AUGUSTIN  GATTINGER,  M.D. 


Published  by  Authority  of  the  State  through  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture 


Press  of 
Gospel  Advocate  Publishing  Company 
Nash  villi:,  Tknn. 
«   1 '.»<)! 


THE  AUTHOR'S  THANKS. 


His  Excellency \  Benton  McMilliri,  Governor. 

Sir:   I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  to  you  a  copy  of  my  work  on 
the  Tennessee  Flora  and  treatise  on  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

Please  accept  my  thanks  for  your  generous   support  in  your 
special  message  to  the  Legislature  of  the  State. 

Yours  very  respectfully, 
A.  GATTINGKR. 


12715)1 


APPROPRIATION  FOR  THIS  VOLUME. 


AN  ACT  to  provide  for  the  acceptance  by  the  State  of  a  work  on  botany, 
prepared  by  Dr.  A.  Gattinger,  and  to  make  an  appropriation  for  its  pub- 
lication and  distribution. 

Whereas  Dr.  A.  Gattinger  has  offered  to  present  to  the  State  a 
work  prepared  by  him,  on  the  botany  of  the  State  of  Tennessee; 
and 

Whereas  the  dissemination  of  such  information  among  the 
people  of  the  State  is  of  the  highest  importance  and  value,  and 
eminently  worthy  of  the  aid  of  the  State;  therefore, 

Section  i.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State 
of  Tennessee,  That  said  work  so  presented  by  Dr.  A.  Gattinger 
be  accepted  by  the  State,  and  that  the  Commissioner  of  Agri- 
culture be,  and  is  hereby,  empowered  and  directed  to  have  said 
work  printed  and  distributed  among  the  citizens  of  Tennessee. 

Sec.  2.  Be  it  further  enacted,  That  the  sum  of  six  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars,  or  so  much  thereof  as  may  be  required,  is  here- 
by appropriated  for  the  purpose  of  printing,  publishing,  and  dis- 
tributing said  work. 

Sec.  3.  Be  it  further  enacted,  That  this  Act  take  effect  from 
and  after  its  passage,  the  public  welfare  requiring  it. 

Passed  April  17,  190 1.  v 

NEWTON  H.  WHITE, 

Speaker  of  the  Senate. 
E.  B.  WILSON, 

Speaker  of  the  House. 


Approved  April  18,  1901 


BENTON  M'MILLIN, 

Governor. 


ERRATA. 


Page  3-     Quotation  should  be  credited  to  Virgil. 

Page  27.     For  "  Graborchard  "  read  "  Craborchard .  " 

Page  27.     Below  "border"  insert  "  O.  S."  (Over  the  State)   and   'M.' 

(Medicinal). 
Page  28,  10th  line.     For  "bulifera  "  read  "bulbifera." 
Page  28,  20th  line.     For  "  Novceboboracensis  "  read  "  Novaeboracensis.*' 
Page  29,  13th  line  from  below.     For  "  thelypleroides  "  read   "thelypter- 

oides. " 
Page  39,  middle.     For  "  an8d  "  read  "  and." 

Page  52,  14th  line  from  below.     For  -"  uburnea  "  read  "  eburm  a." 
Page  55,  middle.     For  "  uniformis  "  read  "  reniforniis  " 
Page  64,  14th  line  from  below.     For  "  Potty  "  read  "  Putty." 
Page    76,    4th   line  from    below   and   higher.       For    "  champion  "    read 

"  campion." 
Page  78,  12th  line  from  above.     For  "  dichtotoma  "  read  "  dichotoma. " 
Page  84,  nth  line.     For  "  Malapcena  "  read  "  Malapoenna." 
Page  86,  12th  line  from  below.    For  "Thelipadium  "  read  "  Thelipodium." 
Page  97,  9th  line  from  below.     For  "  Soheele  "  read  "  scheele." 
Page  100,  3d  line.     Before  "  Gattingeri  "  insert  "  C." 
Page  105,  8th  line.     For  "  Thephrosia  "  read  "  Tephrosia." 
Page  115,  16th    line.     For  "W.   W.     Ashe    from"  read   "  \V.   W.    Ashe. 

From,  etc." 
Page  118,  9th  line  from  below.     For  "  moshata  "  read  "  moschata  " 
Page  120,  8th  line  from  below.     For  "  gymmanthum  "  read    "  gymnan- 

thum." 
Page  120.     After  "  Hypericum  Kalmianum  "  insert  "II.  aureum  Bart  ram. 

Limestone  cliffs  of  M.  Tenn.     Frequent.     July." 
Page  122,  middle.     For  "  Criocarpa  "  read  "  Friocarpa." 
Page  123,  8th  line  below.     For  "  Caney  Fork  "  rea.l  "  Collins  River." 


Page  135.  3d  line  and  below.     For  "  pimpernell  "  read  "  pimpernel." 

Page  138,  6th  line.     For  "  Pleuresy  "  read  "  Pleurisy." 

Page  142,  4th  line  and  below.     For  "  gomfrey  "  read  "  comfrey." 

Page  142,  12th  line  from  below.     For  "raccoon  "  read  "puccoon." 

Page  146,  below.     For  "  majoran  "  read  "marjoram. 

Page  151,  below  "  Leptandra."     "M."  omitted. 

Page  152,  6th  line  from  below.     For  "  Lausewort  "  read  "  Louseworth." 

Page  154,  below.     For  "  leptosyachya  "  read  "  leptostachya." 

Page  154,  3d  line.     For  "  proboscoidea  "  read  "  proboscidea." 

Page  155,  3d  line.     For  "  cocerulea  "  read  "  coerulea." 

Page  158,  17th  line  from  belowr.     For  "  Cururbita  "  read  "  Cucurbita." 

Page  160,  12th  line  from  below.     For  "  Leontedon  "  read  "  Leontodon." 

Page  162,  middle.     For  "  strum aricum  "  read  "  strumarium." 

Page  163,  9th  line.     For  "  tencrifolium  "  read  "  teucrifolium." 

Page  163,  13th  line.     For  "  rotundifoium  "  read  "  rotundifolium. " 

Page  165,  2d  line  from  below.     For  "  corybosus  "  read  "  corymbosus. " 

Page  170,  10th  line.     For  "  Braunneria  "  read  "  Brauneria." 

Page  170,  4th  line.     For  "  Lapachys  "  read  "  Lepachys." 

Page  172,  middle.     For  "  Helienium  "  "Helenium." 

Page  1S0.     For  "  Danthus  "  read  "Dianthus." 

Page  187,  below  quotation.     Read  translation  :  "  Time  obliterates  opinions 

of  men,  but  it  confirms  the  decisions  of  nature." 
Page  193,  middle.     For  "Arbella  "  read  "Arbela." 
Page  204,  21st  line.     For  "creed  "  read  "greed." 
Page  209,  Latin  quotation.     For  "  etque  "  read  "atque." 
Page  216,  nth  line.     For  "  Sarcen  "  read  "  Saracen." 
Page  218,  7th  line.     For  "A.D.  33  "  read  "A.D.  337." 
Page  218,1 7th  line.     For  ' '  556 ' '  read  ' '  350. ' ' 

Page  234,  12th  line  from  below.     For  "  grassculum  "  read  "grassculm." 
Page  241,  7th  line.     For  "him"  read  "man." 
Page  243,  middle.     For  "  lappaegue  "  read  "  lappceque." 
Page  244,  German  quotation.     For  "  Such  "  read  "  Such'st." 
Page  272,  nth  line  from  below.     For  "nutritou  "  read  "  nutrition." 


CONTENTS. 


FLORA  OF  TENNESSEE. 

Preface 3 

Areal  Botany 1 1 

Synopsis  of  the  Flora 27 

Review  of  Families 176 

Index  to  Genera [78 

PHILOSOPHY  OF  BOTANY. 

Evolution  of  Botany 187 

Forestry 241 

Introduction  of  a  National  Forestry  Policy.. 
Modern    Thoughts    on    Origin,    Evolution,    and 
Significance  of  Life 


PREFACE 


Coelum  non  animum  mutant  qui  trans  mare  currunt.*       //  i/l+laA  J 

The  fifth  decade  of  the  past  century  proved  disastrous  to  the 
patriots  of  Germany  who  were  seeking  liberty  and  progress,  and  no 
hope  was  left  for  recovery  from  the  defeat  sustained  or  for  better 
success  in  the  near  future  by  a  renewal  of  the  struggle  for  liberal 
government.  For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  Bavarian 
capital  of  Munich,  a  meeting  of  discontented  citizens  was  held,  to 
deliberate  upon  joint  action  to  secure  better  and  safer  means  of 
emigration  to  the  United  States  of  North  America.  Artists,  pro- 
fessional men,  mechanics,  and  farmers,  people  of  good  standing  in 
society  and  amply  provided  financially,  to  the  number  of  nearly 
two  hundred,  composed  the  meeting. 

At  this  time  an  association  of  students  of  the  University  of  Mu- 
nich, of  which  I  was  a  member,  resolved  to  celebrate  in  a  solemn 
fete  Washington's  birthday,  a  proceeding  never  before  heard  of,  but 
fully  in  accord  with  the  sentiments  of  this  party,  which  in  these  tur- 
bulent times  represented  the  liberal  movement  in  the  university. 
The  celebration  was  a  great  success,  and  speeches  and  eulogies  on 
Washington  and  Jefferson,  Franklin  and  other  heroes  were  in- 
dulged in  fervently  and  unreservedly. 

The  open  avowal  of  republican  institutions  was  immediately  de- 
nounced as  a  provocation,  too  flagrant  to  be  allowed  to  be  passed  by, 
and  actions  were  instituted  by  the  authorities.  Several  of  the 
participants  had  to  leave  the  city.  Called  before  the  university 
tribunal,  I  was  released  on  my  pledge  to  emigrate.  I  regret  to  Bay 
that  I  have  never  since  found  an  opportunity  to  celebrate  this 
national  festivity  with  the  same  pathos  and  enthusiasm  as  on  this 
memorable  twenty-second  of  February,  1849. 

Severance  from  beloved  friends  and  the  ancestral  soil  is  a  bitter 
and  mournful  task,  and  recollection  of  it  even  now  clouds  the  - 
renity  of  the  moment.     But  the  genius  of  love  mitigated   my  dis- 

*  New  stars,  new  sights  the  pilgrim  meets; 
He  stays  the  same  in  thoughts  and  deeds. 


4  Preface. 

tress,  for  the  one  whom  I  had  chosen  for  my  companion  through 
the  turmoils  of  life  consented  to  go  with  me,  and  we  joined  hands 
at  the  American  consulate  at  Havre  before  sailing. 

These  circumstances  account  for  my  appearance  in  Chattanooga, 
Tenn.,  in  June,  1849,  which  place  I  reached  by  stage  from  Dalton, 
Ga.,  the  terminus  of  the  Georgia  and  South  Carolina  Eailroad.  I 
was  fascinated  by  the  magnificence  of  the  scenery;  but  there  were 
but  few  dwellings,  and  these  of  poor  construction,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected in  a  recently-settled  place.  After  a  short  delay,  a  small  side- 
wheel  steamer  blew  its  whistle  and  brought  me  and  my  party  after 
three  days'  navigation  up  to  Kingston,  on  the  Clinch  Kiver.  This 
little  town  looked  clean  and  airy,  and,  pleased  with  the  friendliness 
of  the  citizens,  we  made  it  the  base  of  operations  for  exploring  the 
vicinity.  Weary  of  traveling  and  wishing  to  enter  on  the  practice 
of  my  profession,  I  was  easily  fascinated  by  a  romantic  spot  called 
"  Cave  Spring,"  eight  miles  to  the  west  of  Kingston,  at  the  time  oc- 
cupied by  an  older  physician,  who  intended  to  go  West.  I  purchased 
the  place  in  partnership  with  my  brother-in-law,  the  late  George 
Dury,  a  Munich  artist,  whose  exquisite  paintings  now  adorn  the 
State  Library  in  the  Capitol.  Unfortunately,  we  did  not  take  into 
consideration,  in  making  this  purchase,  the  possible — or,  rather, 
impossible — revenues  to  be  derived  from  this  possession,  a  circum- 
stance which  ultimately  necessitated  the  abandonment  of  our  farm- 
ing experiment  at  a  great  sacrifice. 

The  transfer  from  a  buoyant  German  city  to  this  silent  retreat 
was  to  me  a  stimulus  to  concentrate  my  attention  outside  profes- 
sional duties  and  equestrian  hardships  to  the  study  of  the  botany 
and  geology  of  the  country.  At  my  alma  mater,  the  University  of 
Munich,  it  was  obligatory  to  pass  through  a  course  of  natural  sci- 
ences— chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  botany — before  being  admitted 
to  the  medical  department.  A  two-years'  course  in  general  and 
medicinal  botany  initiated  me  into  the  science.  Moreover,  I  had 
from  earlier  school  years  been  a  botanical  collector,  and  had  given 
a  great  deal  of  time  to  these  studies. 

After  the  abandonment  of  Cave  Spring  I  acquired  some  property 
in  Charleston,  Bradley  County,  where  I  remained  until  I  accepted, 
in  1858,  the  charge  of  resident  surgeon  at  the  copper  mines  of 
Ducktown,  situated  in  the  high  mountains  of  East  Tennessee,  ad- 
joining North  Carolina  and  Georgia.  The  new  situation  was  so- 
cially very  agreeable,  moderately  remunerative,  and  possessed  botan- 


Preface. 

icallyand  geologically  so  many  and  so  diversified  points  of  it: 
that  a  whole  lifetime  of  a  competenl  investigator  could  nol  exhaust 

and  unravel  all  the  problems  and  collect  the  various  plants,  min- 
erals, and  rocks.  A  prominent  member  of  the  United  States  {'<>->~ 
logical  Survey,  who  is  intimately  acquainted  with  this  region,  as- 
sured me  in  a  recent  correspondence  that  in  the  entire  area  of  the 
United  States  he  knows  of  no  part  which,  in  an  equal  territory, 
possesses  so  great  a  diversity  and  complication  of  structure.  I  ei  - 
joyed  and  utilized  industriously  my  opportunity,  although  with 
great  diffidence,  in  the  results  of  my  analyses,  for  \v;mt  of  scientific 
botanical  literature,  especially  of  the  American. 

Having  been  fifteen  years  in  the  saddle,  traversing  more  than 
one-half  of  East  Tennessee,  throughout  the  Cumberland  Mountains 
and  all  the  valleys  between  Walden's  Ridge  and  Smoky  Mountain, 
I  held  in  my  mind  a  well-connected  panorama,  of  the  natural  rista 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

Possessed,  as  I  believed  myself  to  be,  of  a  moderate  and  quiet 
enjoyment  of  intelligent  and  useful  pursuits,  it  came  suddenly  to 
pass  that  I  had  to  bear  my  share  of  the  agonies  and  convulsion-  of 
the  Civil  War. 

Opposed  to  the  disruption  of  the  Union,  knowing  from  experi- 
ence the  misery  of  a  great  nation  split  into  petty  principalities  (as 
was  the  case  with  Germany  for  centuries),  seeing  in  the  growing 
greatness  of  this  government  the  future  liberation  of  all  nationali- 
ties through  its  physical  power  and  moral  influence,  I  advocated 
the  cause  of  the  Union,  and  created  such  displeasure  t<>  my  former 
friends  that  I  found  it  advisable  to  leave  my  domicile  and  part  with 
my  family.  On  a  cold,  starry  March  night,  afoot,  no  money,  with 
a  small  satchel  as  traveling  outfit,  I  wound  my  way  through  the 
Ocoee  gorge  and  reached  the  town  of  Cleveland,  forty  miles  distant, 
without  an  accident. 

The  government  in  which  I  had  put  my  faith  and  trusi 
me  under  its  care,  sent  me  to  Nashville,  and  put  me  int..  serv- 
ice as  an  assistant  surgeon.  After  the  expiration  of  my  term 
and  recovery  from  a.  severe  malarial  fever,  winch  temporarily 
disabled  me  for  army  duties,  I  accepted  from  the  military  I 
ernor,  Andrew  Johnson,  the*  position  of  State  Librarian,  which 
I  held  during  five  years,  whereby  I  greatly  improved  my  acquaint- 
ance with  scientific  American  literature.  Moreover,  I  found  such 
helps  in  pursuit  of  making  collections  a-   I   never  before  or 


6  Preface. 

wards  enjoyed.  Through  the  kindness  of  the  military  superin- 
tendent  of  the  Nashville,  Chattanooga  and  St.  Louis  Railway, 
Gen.  William  T.  Innes,  I  was  favored  with  the  privilege  of  using 
all  trains,  passenger  and  freight,  at  all  points  for  travel.  This 
permit  continued  four  years,  until  the  administration  of  the  rail- 
road was  changed,  and  when  I  also  lost  my  office  as  State  Librarian. 
From  this  time  on  I  carried  on  an  interesting  correspondence  with 
prominenl  botanists  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  by  sub- 
mission to  the  approval  of  our  leading  botanical  authorities,  I  se- 
cured the  correctness  of  specific  determinations.  I  am  under  great 
obligations  to  the  late  Dr.  Gray,  of  Cambridge,  Mass. ;  the  late  Dr. 
Engelman,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  the  late  Dr.  G.  Vasey,  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture ;  the  late  Dr.  Chapman,  of  Apa- 
lachicola,  Fla.,  for  their  assistance. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  tha.t  Dr.  Eugel,  who,  about  fifty  years 
ago,  resided  in  the  vicinity  of  Greeneville  and  made  valuable  collec- 
tions and  discoveries  in  that  vicinity  and  the  mountains  of  East 
Tennessee  and  North  Carolina,  died  without  leaving  a  record  of  his 
work.  His  collections  came  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Shuttleworth, 
of  England.  Senecio  Eugelia  Gray,  Plantago  Rugelii  Decaisne, 
Siphonychia  Rugelii  Chapm.  commemorate  his  name. 

My  collections  were  in  much  request  for  exchange,  as  they 
contained  many  novelties  and  were  well  prepared.  The  area 
of  Middle  Tennesse  was  an  unexplored  region,  botanically,  and 
I  claim  the  honor  of  being  the  pioneer  in  this  field.  At  the 
meeting  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  held  in  Nashville  in  1877,  the  botanical  division  en- 
couraged me  to  prepare  a  catalogue  of  plants  or  flora  of  Tennes- 
see, which  I  was  assured  would  be  received  favorably  by  all  Ameri- 
can botanists.  I  consented  to  do  so,  and  fulfilled  my  obligation  in 
1883  by  publishing  a  small  volume  of  one  hundred  and  nine 
pages,  a  systematic  enumeration  of  seventeen  hundred  and  eight 
species.  It  was  printed  at  my  own  expense,  and  distributed 
gratuitously  among  the  schools  of  the  State,  and  such  patrons  of 
botany  as  applied  for  it.  This  movement  helped  me  very  much 
in  the  furtherance  of  my  enterprise,  as  it  brought  together  all  per- 
sons within  the  State  who  had  an  interest  in  botany,  and  had  col- 
lected more  or  less.  With  this  catalogue  in  hand,  every  collector 
in  Tennessee  was  enabled  to  see  whether  or  not  it  contained  all 
the  species  which  he  had  found  himself,  and  he  would  then  report 


Preface.  t 

to  me  his  own  discoveries.  I  soon  received  valuable  contributions 
from  my  esteemed  friend,  the  late  Gen.  E.  Kirby-Smith,  at  Se- 
wanee;  Prof.  T.  M.  Bain,  now  of  the  Agricultural  College,  Knox- 
ville;  Prof.  A.  Euth,  superintendent  of  public  Bchools  in  Knox- 
ville;  the  late  Mrs.  Lydia  Bennett,  of  Fisk  University.  Nash- 
ville; Dr.  G.  Egeling,  pharmacist,  Memphis;  and  Prof.  Lamson 
F.  Scribner  and  Mr.  Kearney,  both  now  of  the  Botanical  Division 
of  the  Agricultural  Department  at  Washington.  Much  valuable 
information  I  drew  from  the  "Memoirs"  of  the  Torn  v  Botanical 
Club,  in  a  report  on  the  flora  of  Western  Xorth  Carolina  and  con- 
tiguous territories,  made  by  John  K.  Small  and  A.  A.  Heller  in 
the  season  of  1891,  and  published  in  February,  1892,  followed  by 
a  similar  report  made  in  the  season  of  1892  by  John  K.  Hall  and 
Anna  Murray  Vail,  on  the  flora  of  Southwestern  Virginia.  Both 
areas  extend  to  the  geographical  borders  of  Tennessee,  along  moun- 
tain ranges  and  water  courses,  which  continue  into  the  upper  bor- 
der counties  of  Tennessee  without  any  difference  in  the  nature  of 
the  soil  or  elevation.  The  flora,  being  necessarily  identical.  1  took 
the  privilege  to  add  to  my  list  all  such  species  which  yei  had  ooi 
been  collected  within  the  adjoining  boundaries  of  the  State.  Most 
recently  I  have  been  favored  with  valuable  information  and  addi- 
tions from  the  botanists  of  the  Biltmore  Botanical  Institute — 
Messrs.  C.  D.  Beadle,  F.  E.  and  C.  L.  Boynton,  and  T.  0.  Harbi- 
son— published  in  "Biltmore  Botanical  Studies,"  Vol.  I..  No.  1  : 
William  Wesley  &  Son,  London.  From  all  these  Bourcee  and 
my  own  continued  collections,  I  can  now  add  over  four  hundred 
species  not  contained  in  the  first  edition,  and  am,  moreover,  en- 
abled to  amend  and  correct  many  errors  occurring  in  the  same. 

For  the  census  of  1880  I  collected  for  Professor  Sargent,  the 
superintendent  of  the  botanical  division  of  the  census,  specimens 
of  the  timbers  of  Tennessee.  I  also  collected  for  the  mineral  di- 
vision of  the  same  census  the  building  stones  o\'  the  State,  with 
the  exclusion  of  the  marbles.  This  collection  consisted  of  forty 
pairs  of  cubes,  all  of  different  character,  four  hv  four  indies.  This, 
I  think,  was  the  first  time  the  granites  of  Tennessee  were  brought 
to  notice  in  beautiful  specimens.  The  collection  also  contained 
the  sandstones — the  beautiful  white  one  from  tin-  Biwassee  Valley 
— and  the  argillites,  conglomerates.  Blates,  and  Limestones,  includ- 
ing the  oolitic  or  Bowling  Green  stone,  which  i-  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  our  customhouse. 


8  Preface. 

In  April,  1878,  I  assisted  Hon.  J.  B.  Killebrew,  then  Commis- 
sioner of  Agriculture  of  the  State,  in  the  publication  of  his  work 
on  the  Tennessee  grasses  and  forage  plants,  by  giving  him  the  list  of 
grasses  actually  collected  by  me,  and  revising  the  manuscript.  In 
the  same  year  I  prepared  a  publication  on  the  trees  and  shrubs 
suitable  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  Nashville  for  the  Board  of 
Health  of  the  city  of  Nashville. 

In  1883  I  was  engaged  by  Hon.  A.  J.  McWhirter,  then  Commis- 
sioner of  Agriculture  for  the  State,  as  an  assistant  in  his  office  and 
in  collecting  minerals,  building  stones,  and  plants  for  the  Louis- 
ville Exhibition  and  other  exhibitions;  but  after  the  close  of  these 
exhibitions  I  was  again  dismissed,  to  be  followed  in  office  by  the 
commissioner's  own  son,  Mr.  L.  B.  McWhirter. 

In  1894  Hon.  T.  F.  P.  Allison,  Commissioner  of  Agriculture, 
intrusted  me  with  a  publication  on  the  medicinal  plants  of  Ten- 
nessee.    The  work  was  carried  out  to  mutual  satisfaction. 

In  1897,  in  connection  with  the  Centennial  Exposition,  I  was 
a  member  of  the  Committee  on  Minerals  and  Mines  of  the  State,  of 
which  Professor  S afford  was  chairman.  I  procured  a  rich  collec- 
tion of  the  copper  ores  and  smelting  products  of  the  Ducktown 
Mines  and  Smelting  Works,  inclusive  of  a  rich  display  of  ingots, 
I  also  exhibited  a  large  collection  of  Tennessee  granites  in  blocks, 
with  one  side  polished,  from  Wolf  Creek,  Carter  County,  and  from 
near  Elizabethton,  on  the  line  of  the  railroad  which  extends  from 
Johnson  City  to  the  Granberry  Mines,  in  North  Carolina. 

At  the  time  of  my  publication  of  the  medicinal  plants,  my  bo- 
tanical collections  had  so  far  progressed  that  I  felt  satisfied  that 
within  a  limited  time  not  many  more  additions  could  be  made,  and 
that  I  had  very  nearly  reached  the  limits  of  the  record.  In  pre- 
paring the  new  edition  I  adopted  the  new  nomenclature  and  made 
some  other  changes,  for  which  I  give  an  explanation  in  the  fol- 
lowing paragraphs. 

One  of  the  greatest  burdens  and  causes  for  confusion  in  sys- 
tematic botany  had  been  the  constantly  increasing  synonyms  for 
the  same  species.  Much  of  it  originated  from  the  disjointed  labors 
of  distant  botanical  writers  describing  the  same  plants ;  often  from 
imperfect  specimens,  while  unacquainted  with  the  past  or  contem- 
poraneous labors  of  others  in  the  same  field;  and  in  not  a  few 
instances  it  resulted  from  the  abuse  of  personal  prominence  and 
disregard  of  the  merits  of  others.     This  disturbing  condition  would 


Preface.  9 

never  have  come  to  an  end,  if  the  great  majority  of  naturalists  bad 
not  recognized  the  necessity  of  accepting  the  name  given  by  tbe 
discoverer  of  a  plant,  whenever  the  name  is  conformable  to  pre- 
established  rules.  Priority  should  be  a  fixed  and  positive  limita- 
tion, which  admits  of  nothing  arbitrary  or  partial. 

On  the  invitation  of  Alphonse  De  Candolle,  an  International 
Botanical  Congress  was  held  in  Paris  in  1867,  to  which  botanists 
from  all  countries  were  invited,  and  the  most  importanl  Bubjed 
discussed  was  botanical  nomenclature.  Mr.  A.  De  Candolle,  author 
of  the  "  Prodromus,"  presided.  He  had  drawn  up  a  mosl  carefully 
considered  code  of  rules  to  govern  botanists  in  their  writings,  and 
this  code  was  submitted  to  the  assemblage  of  botanists,  each  rule 
being  formulated  and  modified  as  the  majority  deemed  wise.  1 
nally  the  whole  was  printed  and  circulated.  The  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  these  laws  was  priority  of  publication,  with  adequate  de- 
scriptions. Unfortunately  it  was  made  retrospective,  without  any 
sufficiently  defined  statute  of  limitations.  Among  zoologists  the 
Stricklandian  code  governs — known  as  the  "Rules  of  the  British 
Association."  It  was  signed  by  Charles  Darwin  and  Pre: 
Hensley.  A  revision  was  made  in  1860  by  Mr.  A.  1\.  Wallace, 
P.  L.  Clayton,  Professor  Balfour,  Professor  Huxley,  Dr.  J.  D. 
Hooker,  and  Mr.  George  Bentham.  A  still  further  revision  of  the 
same  occurred  in  1865.  In  the  preface  to  this  code  occurs  this 
sentence:  "  No  one  person  can  subsequently  claim  an  authority 
equal  to  that  possessed  by  the  person  who  is  the  first  to  define  a 
new  genus  or  describe  a  new  species." 

The  adoption  of  the  Paris  code  did  not  meet  an  immediate 
and  universal  acceptance.  The  conflict  with  the  interests  of 
authors  and  publishers  of  works  of  great  value,  the  issue  of  which 
had  been  commenced  and  was  still  progressing,  was  a  matter  of 
some  consideration.  The  nonattendance  of  English  botanists  at 
the  Paris  Congress  was  perhaps  due  to  tins  cause.  The  annoyance 
created  by  such  radical  changes  is  a  very  gnat  one,  and  a  burden 
pressing  heavily  upon  the  older  botanists,  who  are  n«>t  bo  well  fitted 
to  recast  their  memories  as  the  younger  generations,  who  will  reap 
the  benefit  of  the  movement.  There  was  also  Borne  friction  with 
us,  even  after  the  meeting  of  the  American  Association  for  t! 
vancement  of  Science,  held  in  August,  L892.  The  botanical  di- 
vision adopted  at  this  meeting  the  Paris  code  of  L867,  with  Borne 
modifications.     At  the  following   meeting,   in    Madison,   W 


1 0  Preface. 

1893,  an  additional  amendment  was  adopted,  and  a  committee  of 
the  association  was  appointed  to  elaborate  a  list  of  Pteridophyta 
and  Spermatophyta,  growing  without  cultivation  in  Northeast- 
ern North  America.  This  work  was  subsequently  published  in  1894 
as  the  fifth  volume  of  the  "Memoirs"  of  the  Torrey  Botanical 
Club.  The  synonyms  given  under  each  species  in  this  work  in- 
clude the  recent  current  names,  and  thus  avoid  any  difficulty  in 
identification. 

The  recently  published  volumes  of  "  The  Illustrated  Flora  "  will, 
on  account  of  the  helpfulness  of  the  illustrations,  soon  find  their 
way  to  general  favor  as  an  indispensable  guide  for  less  expert  col- 
lectors, for  which  the  innovation  therein  adopted  has  no  harassing 
inconvenience.  In  view  of  this  prospect  I  have  also,  although  re- 
luctantly, adopted  the  new  nomenclature.  I  have,  furthermore, 
given  in  this  edition  the  English  vernacular  names  and  some 
derived  from  the  Aborigines,  where  such  are  known,  but  did  not 
think  it  proper  to  make,  in  their  absence,  English  translations  from 
the  Latin  names.  A  general  botanical  and  geological  chorography 
or  natural  aspect  of  the  area  precedes  the  systematic  enumeration 
of  the  species. 

In  the  year  1890  my  entire  collection,  the  second  largest  herba- 
rium in  the  South,  came  into  the  possession  of  the  University  of 
Tennessee,  at  Knoxville,  and  as  I  cannot,  by  my  advanced  years, 
expect  to  add  much  to  its  enlargement,  I  am  happy  to  know  it  is 
in  hands  under  whose  care  it  will  be  well  preserved  and  utilized. 
While  the  pursuit  of  botany  never  brought  me  any  financial  ad- 
vantages, I  acknowledge  that  it  was  a  mighty  protector  in  keeping 
me  out  of  the  way  of  social  corruption,  and  it  gave  me  many  hours 
of  the  purest  enjoyment  of  life  and  brought  me  into  friendly  re- 
lations with  many  excellent  men  and  women. 

In  order  to  gain  a  wider  circle  of  readers  and  to  give  further  in- 
ducement to  the  study  of  botany,  I  have  added  an  "  Epitome  of 
the  History  of  Botany/'  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Introduction  of  a  For- 
estry Policy  in  the  United  States','"  and  a  "  Treatise  on  Protoplasm 
and  Origin  of  Life." 

A  list  of  authors  whose  works  have  been  consulted  or  literally 
quoted  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  work. 

I  am  well  aware  that  there  is  much  scope  for  improvement  of  this 
work,  and  I  turn  to  the  younger  generation  of  botanists,  who  can 
work  under  more  favorable  conditions,  soliciting  their  cooperation 
in  extending  and  perfecting  it. 

Very  respectfully,  A.  GATTINGEE,  M.D. 


Areal  Botany  or  Regional  Distribution 
of  Plants* 


Engaged  with  laurel,  oak,  and  fir, 

'Midst  fern  and  sedge,  the  viler  or  the  rare, 

In  dismal  swamps,  'neath  cypress  grand  and  fair, 

Where  snakes  and  tangles  bring  despair; 

On  lofty  crags,  in  clouded  sphere, 

Where  eagles  built  their  artless  lair, 

And,  whistling,  swing  in  upper  air; 

Onward,  though  of  waning  strength  aware, 

Seeking  truth,  with  firm  resolve  1  dare 

To  plead  my  right  to  reason,  doubt,  or  err. 

GENERAL  ASPECT  OF  THE  FLORA. 

The  boundaries  of  Tennessee  are  embraced  within  the  great 
Atlantic  forest  region.  The  whole  of  this  territory  was  in  Its 
yirgin  state,  an  immense  expanse  of  varied  woodlands,  being  in  the 
lowlands  of  dense  and  massive  growth,  filled  with  pathless  jungles 
of  cane  and  shrub,  or,  away  from  the  water  courses,  on  the  uplands, 
reduced  to  open  and  airy  groves  (with  great  diversity  of  timbers  ). 
the  barrens.  Here  a  dense  sward  covers  the  ground  and  herba 
growth  prevails.  Mountain  forests  are  always  of  greater  uniform- 
ity in  distribution  of  timbers. 

Nearly  one-third  of  the  entire  area  is  now  reduced  to  fields 
or  occupied  by  buildings  or  roads.  Canebrakes  have  well-nigh 
disappeared,  and  the  forest  is  in  all  accessible  regions  depleted  of 
valuable  timber. 

Immigration  of  foreign  and  retirement  of  native  Bpecies  con- 
tinually modify  the  aboriginal  flora  and  tend  to  weaken  character- 
istics due  to  presence  of  peculiar  plant  forms,  or  collocation  of 
species,  by  the  intricacies  of  mutual  predilection  and  adaptation  to 
surroundings. 

Such  areas,  which  differ  among  themselves  conspicuously  in 
such  properties,  admit  of  the  establishment  of  natural  flora]  ar- 
rondissements. 

Differences  of  elevation,   diversity    in   elementary  constitution 

I  have  retained  in  this  chapter  the  old  nomenclature  of  Dra  Oraj 

and  Chapman,  for  the  benefit  of  those  using  their  manuals. 

D.  H.  HILL  LIBRARY 


North  Carolina  State  College 


12  Tennessee  Flora. 

of  the  soil,  and  inequality  in  distribution  of  atmospheric  humidity 
are,  in  our  territory,  sufficiently  potent  to  mark  out  four  distinct 
regions : 

I.  The  high  crests  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  formed  of 
Grauwake  slates,  gneiss,  or  mica  schists,  with  an  elevation  of  from 
4,000  to  6,600  feet.     Subalpine  region. 

II.  The  western  slopes  of  the  Alleghanies  and  their  outlying 
spurs,  and  the  Cumberland  Mountains.  Sandstones  and  slates. 
Mountain  flora.     Elevation,  from  2,000  to  4,000  feet. 

III.  Valley  flora,  the  lower  division  of  which  is  coextensive  with 
the  limestones  (Silurian)  of  East  and  Middle  Tennessee.  Eleva- 
tion, from  350  to  500  feet.  The  upper  division,  or  highlands,  has 
siliceous  and  argillaceous  soils,  sometimes  limestones  of  the  sub- 
carboniferous  formation.  Elevation,  about  1,000  or  1,200  feet.  The 
former  division  is  characterized  through  its  cedar  glades;  the  latter 
is  the  region  of  the  oak  barrens. 

IV.  West  Tennessee,  situated  between  two  powerful  rivers, 
with  much  level  or  only  gently  undulating  surface,  owes  its  pecul- 
iarities to  the  abundance  of  swampy  lands  and  predominantly 
argillaceous  soils,  in  connection  with  a  in  ore  humid  atmosphere. 

SUBALPINE    REGION. 

The  dividing  line  between  the  States  of  North  Carolina  and 
Tennessee  passes  over  and  along  the  crest  of  the  highest  ridges 
and  peaks,  known  as  the  Unaka,  Great  Smoky,  Bald,  and  Frog 
Mountains.  Their  average  elevation  is  about  5,000  feet,  but  about 
twenty-two  summits  are  6,000  feet  or  more.  The  highest  stretch 
lies  between  the  French  Broad  Eiver  and  the  Little  Tennessee 
River,  with  fifty-five  high  points,  eighteen  of  which  are  over  6,000 
feet.  ( !lingman's  Dome,  by  a  few  feet  the  highest,  rises  to  the  very 
respectable  altitude  of  6,600  feet  above  tide  water,  according  to  the 
measurements  of  Prof.  Arnold  Guiot,  of  Princeton,  N.  J.  (Vide 
American  Journal  of  Science,  September,  1857,  and  November, 
1860.)  Geologically  they  consist  of  Huronian  schists  and  gneisses, 
and  in  some  spots  of  Laurentian  granites. 

Not  one  of  these  high  crests  presents  a  bleak  crag,  bare  of 
vegetation,  nor  is  there  a  timber  line.  Some  are  evenly  timbered 
throughout,  others  support  only  a  scattered  and  stunted  arboreal 
growth,  and  some  bear  only  a  low  shrubby  or  herbaceous  vegeta- 
tion.    The  absence  of  timber  on  the  so-called  "  Balds  "  is  perhaps 


Tennessee  Flora.  18 

due  to  waves  of  excessive  cold;  such,  at  least.  Beem  the  dead  trunks. 
looming  up  here  and  there,  to  suggest. 

.  VALLEY  LANDS. 

If  you  approach  the  mountains  of  East  Tennessee  from  their 
western  slope,  taking  a  direct  course  eastward,  traveling  from 
Cleveland  along  the  road  which  leads  to  the  copper  mines  in  Polk 
County,  you  are  constantly  uphill  and  downhill  for  nearly  fifteen 
miles,  intersecting  a  series  of  low  parallel  ridges.  The  soil  is 
directly  derived  from  the  underlying  rock,  one  of  the  Lowesl  mem- 
bers of  the  Silurian  formation,  and  only  very  small  strips  of  allu- 
vium line  the  few  streamlets  which  you  have  to  cross.  Along  t  In- 
line is  also  the  watershed,  between  the  Tennesse'c  River  system  and 
the  Coosa  River.  It  belongs  mainly  to  that  class  of  kind  which,  all 
over  the  State,  is  not  very  favorably  known  as  gravelly  hills,  from  a 
superficial  covering  of  sharp  cherty  or  dolomitic  gravels  of  all 
sizes,  generally  small,  but  often  also  protruding  in  dykelike  masses. 
Magnesian  and  siliceous  rocks,  no  matter  to  which  geological  age 
they  may  belong,  are,  all  the  world  over,  the  most  unavailing  min- 
eral constituents  of  soil,  and,  for  the  lack  of  alkali  and  phosphates, 
are  soon  exhausted  by  crops  which  consume  much  of  these  element-. 
The  generally  thin  covering  of  humus  supports  a  meager  herbage, 
and  cattle  have  to  be  on  their  feet  all  the  while  in  defense  againsi 
starvation.  Black-jack  oaks,  Spanish  oak,  black  oak,  sourwood, 
dogwood,  slim  chestnuts,  loblolly  pine,  scrub  pine,  and  lure  and 
there  a  yellow  pine  which  has  escaped  the  ax,  make  up  the  ! 
which,  throughout  this  region,  is  stripped  of  the  merchantable 
timber.  I  have,  myself,  within  thirty-five  years,  witnessed  the  rise 
and  fall  of  this  empire.  The  short  space  of  time  which  passed  be- 
tween the  first  harvest  and  hopeless  abandonment  had  not  vet 
prostrated  all  the  dead  timber  girdled  in  the  firsl  clearing,  when 
the  returns  became  too  small  to  pay  for  the  expense  el*  cultivation. 
Stunted  sassafras  and  persimmon,  here  and  there  a.  loblolly  pine. 
sumacs  (Rhus  glabra  and  copallina),  are  the  growth  by  which 
regenerating  nature  tries  to  reclaim  those  ruined  lands.  The  herb- 
age consists  generally  of  very  humble  plants:  the  buttonweed 
(Diodia  teres),  Virginia  plantain  (Plantago  Virginica) ,  the  flow- 
ering spurge  {Euphorbia  corollot 'a) ,  butterfly  weed  (Asclepias  ////"- 
rosa),  two  species  of  broom  grass  (Andropogon  Vvrgimcus  and 
parius),  the  foxtail  grass  (Setaria  glauca  ).  the  poverty  gri 


14  Tennessee  Flora. 

tida  dichotoma),  the  common  evening  primrose  (CEnothera  bien- 
nis), the  mullein  (Verbascum  thapsus),  the  never-failing  ragweed 
(Ambrosia  artemisicBfolia) ,  a  few  solidagos  and  asters  (Aster  eri- 
coides  and  dumosus),  constitute  the  larger  herbs.  In  places  the 
ground  is  spread  over  by  the  prostrate  low  blackberry  (Rubus  trivi- 
alis),  or  cinquel'oil  (Potentilla  Canadensis),  while  the  high  black- 
berry (  Huh  us  ri/losus)  replaces  former  fence  rows.  Cattle  find  an 
insufficient  support  from  browsing  on  the  Japan  bush  clover  (Lespe- 
deza  striata),  white  and  yellow  clover  (Trifolium  repens  and  pro- 
cumbens),  and  about  two  nutritious  grasses,  the  crop  grass  (Pani- 
cum  digitarid),  and  a  species  of  paspalum.  The  botanist  finds  but 
few  rarer  species  to  compensate  him  for  his  exertions,  and  rejoices 
to  find  himself  at  last  in  full  sight  of  the  mountains,  in  descending 
the  eastern  slope  of  a  ridge  which  borders  the  Ocoee  Eiver.  This 
broad  mountain  stream,  swiftly  gliding  over  his  pebbly  bed,  is 
skirted  by  a  stately  and  diversified  growth  of  timber — Herculean 
sycamores  and  massive  cottonwoods,  immense  lindens  and  pop- 
lars, slippery  and  white  elms,  ashes,  white  walnut,  and  box  elder 
of  stately  growth.  The  water  oak  and  willow  oak  (Quercus  aquat- 
ica  and  Quercus  phellos),  with  elegant  outline  and  glistening  color 
of  foliage,  are  contrasted  by  the  chalk-white  trunks  of  the  gray 
birch  (Betula  lutea),  with  ever-tremulous  foliage,  on  delicate 
sprigs.  Xow  and  then  a  holly  (Ilex  opaca),  silver-bell  tree  (Ha- 
lesia  tetraptera),  and  an  umbrella  tree  (Magnolia  umbrella)  pre- 
sent themselves  as  outliers  from  the  upper  regions.  Crossing  the 
river,  the  romantic  hamlet,  Parksville,  is  soon  reached,  the  gateway 
to  the  great  mountains,  opening  between  two  mighty  pillars,  the 
Chilhowee  Mountain  to  the  left  or  north  side,  and  the  Bound  Moun- 
tain to  the  right  or  south  side.  Before  reaching  the  milldam,  the 
last  ledges  of  chert  and  dolomite  are  passed,  andquarziteandsiliceo- 
argillaceous  conglomerates  are  the  country  rocks.  Narrow  but 
rich  bottoms,  encompassed  by  high  and  steep  mountain  sides,  the 
latter  heavily  timbered,  give  room  for  small  and  scattered  farms, 
well  cared  for  and  successfully  managed. 

MOUNTAIN  FLORA. 

The  lower  mountain  flora  is  spreading  around  on  all  sides, 
clothed  in  deeper  green  or  gaudier  coloriners.  As  we  ascend  the 
river,  which  gushes  with  deafening  roar  from  shoal  to  shoal,  we 
discern  how  every  submerged  rock  is  densely  coated  with  a  rough, 


Tennessee  Flora.  l  G 

wool-like  growth,  an  inch  or  two  long,  threadlike,  the  flowers  the 
size  of  pin  heads,  the  mountain  river  weed  (Podostemon  fl6- 
rotanoides),  pondweeds  float  in  loner  streamers  (Pcdamogeton 
hybridus,  Potamogeton  Claytorvi).  An  endless  variety  of  shrub- 
bery constitutes  the  undergrowth.  The  Kalmia  {Kalmia  lati- 
folia),  worthy  companion  to  the  great  mountain  laurel  (Rhodo- 
dendron maximum),  and  four  azaleas,  equally  beautiful  (the  fra- 
grant clammy  azalea),  merit  the  highest  praise  and  are  very  abun- 
dant. Various  other  kinds  of  the  heath  family,  with  white  and 
bell-shaped  flowers  and  evergreen  foliage,  are  characteristic  features 
of  the  scenery.  Foremost,  the  dense  masses  of  Leucothoe  ( '"'■ 
a  tall  shrub  with  wand-shaped,  recurved  branches  and  dense  pen- 
dulous racemes,  exhaling  the  odor  of  chestnut  flower-:  Leucothoe 
recurva,  the  Andromeda  floribunda,  and  the  white  alder  (Clethra 
acuminata) ,  either  as  bush  or  small  tree,  all  belong  to  this  type. 

A  singular  and  unparalleled  display  is  reserved  for  the  untiring 
botanist  if  he  climbs  to  the  highest  cliffs  of  the  Chilhowee,  from 
whence  at  one  glance  he  can  survey  the  whole  valley  of  Easl  Tennes- 
see until  his  eye  meets,  in  the  smoky  distance,  the  rectilinear  coarse 
of  Walden's  Eidge.  At  an  elevation  of  about  2,500  feet  he  descries 
along  vertical  cliffs  of  Potsdam  sandstone,  dense  groves  of  the 
fringe  tree  (Chicmanthus  Vvrginica),  in  greater  vigor  and  alum- 
dance  of  flowers  than  he  had  ever  before  witnessed.  Several  rare 
ferns  grow  in  the  crevices,,  such  as  the  woolly-leafed  Cheilanthea 
(Chil.  tomentosa) ,  grayish  green  on  the  upper  surface  ami  rusty 
•colored  underneath;  the  Cheilanthes  vestita,,  <>f  similar  habit,  luit 
not  quite  so  attractive;  the  neat  little  Asplenium  Trichomanes  and 
Asplenium  montanum.  Polpyodium  vulgare  and  incanum  ami 
some  larger  species  of  Phcgopteris  and  Aspidium  abound.  <  Irchids 
of  rare  beauty  nestle  in  the  deep  mold — Bl&tia  aphylla,  Goodyera, 
pubescens,  Pogonia  ophioglossoides  and  verticillata,  Cypripediutn 
spectabile,  acaule  and  pubescens. 

From  the  twelfth  to  the  sixteenth  mile  above  Parksville,  the 
canon  cuts  through  the  highest  part  of  the  Big  Prog  Mountain  and 
opens  out  into  a  rugged  plateau  or  l>a>in  formed  of  micaceous, 
copper-bearing  rocks.  From  Greasy  Creek,  three  miles  above 
Parksville,  to  the  Mundic  Bluff,  which  is  within  the  hearl  of  the 
great  mountain  chain,  dark-colored,  argillaceous  or  roofing  slates, 
porphyritic  from  disseminated  cubes  of  pyrites,  and  grayish  mica- 
ceous slates  build  up  the  towering  and  grotesque  masses  and 


16  Tennessee  Flora. 

which  lead  up  to  the  ridgelike  summit.  An  untouched  virgin 
forest  covers  these  slopes — principally  splendid  white  pines,  mixed 
with  some  yellow  pine,  and  in  low  and  sandy  spots  also  scrub  pine. 
In  very  moist  places,  immediately  at  the  foot  of  ridges  or  vertical 
precipices,  where  deep  beds  of  mold  accumulate,  the  hemlock 
spruce  (Abies  Canadensis)  reaches  160  feet,  and  probably  over,  and 
a  diameter  of  six  feet.  Prostrate  and  decaying  trunks  are  com- 
pletely wrapped  up  in  mosses,  liverworts,  and  lichens,  for  which  this 
region  is  a  selected  homestead.  Embedded  in  the  soft  pillows  of 
moss,  some  delicate,  shade-loving  plants  enjoy  a  well-protected  and 
concealed  existence — the  mountain  bluets  (Honstonia  serpylli- 
folia),  the  frail  and  subtle  Circaea  alpina,  the  Canada  and  downy 
yellow  violet  (Viola  Canadensis  and  Viola  pubescens) ,  and  the  span- 
high  Mitella  diphylla,  or  miter  wort,  with  a  spike  of  white  flowers, 
followed  by  miter-shaped  seed  capsules.  The  wood  sorrel  (Oxalis 
Acetosella) ,  and  the  low-creeping  partridge  berry  nestle  close  and 
snug  in  cushions  of  sphagnum,  hypnum,  and  climacium.  Above 
Mundic  Bluff  a  granitoid,  heavy  bedded  rock  sets  in.  It  is  of  gray- 
ish color,  hard,  and  but  little  prone  to  weathering  (Grauivake) .  A 
thin  crust  of  soil  which  has  formed  upon  it  supports  a  grayish- 
green  club  moss  (Sclaginella  torlipila) ,  a  low  and  diffusely- 
branched  willow  grass  (Vraba  ramosissima) ,  the  shrubby  St. 
Johmswort  (Hypericum  BucMcyi).  Where  the  debris  has  accu- 
mulated, and  water  trickles  down  from  the  overhanging  cliffs,  there 
nod  the  golden  panicles  of  the  Lysimachia  Fraseri,  and  the  climb- 
ing shrub  Decumaria  barbara  drapes  the  walls. 

THE   BIG   FROG   MOUNTAIN. 

A  short  distance  up  the  road,  the  river  must  again  be  forded  to 
reach  some  secluded  mountain  homes  called  "  Beyers  Settlement," 
from  whence  the  ascent  of  the  mountain  is  most  direct  and  easiest. 
I  made  the  ascent  in  July,  1878,  in  company  with  some  young 
friends  and  a  guide.  At  an  elevation  of  about  2,000  feet,  with  the 
Big  Frog  mountain  right  before  us,  we  started  at  four  o'clock  in  the 
evening,  prepared  to  camp  out  at  least  one  night.  The  entire  party 
was  on  foot,  a  mule  carrying  the  package.  A  somewhat  level  place, 
about  two-thirds  up  the  mountain,  called  the  "  Sugar  Orchard," 
from  the  sugar  maples  which  cover  this  place,  was  chosen  for  the 
camping  place,  and  early  in  the  morning  we  accomplished  the  as- 
cent. 


Tennessee   Flora.  it 

At  this  altitude,  from  camp  to  summit,  from  3,500  to  near  •'• 
feet,  the  reduction  of  mean  temperature  corresponds  aboul  with  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  latitude  of  Northern  Ohio,  a  differei 
eight  degrees  of  latitude.  Various  shruhe  and  herbaceous  plants, 
which  are  indigenous  to  the  latter  region,  and  do  not  uow  inhabit 
the  intervening  territory,  luxuriate  in  this  coo]  and  cloud-enveloped 
zone.  The  glory  of  the  prairies  has  passed  away  in  the  Middle  and 
Northern  States,  but  their  untainted  splendor  survives  here  in  these 
untrodden  mountain  meadows,  although  very  limited  in  extent. 
Trees  become  scarce  and  more  scattered,  with  greai  bald  Bpaces 
between,  with  very  low  trunks  in  proportion  to  size  of  limb  and 
crown.  The  chestnuts  ramify  so  close  to  the  ground  thai  the  lower 
limbs  can  be  grasped  with  the  hand.  The  varieties  on  the  sum  in  it 
are  chestnut,  red  oak,  yellow  birch,  mountain  maple  (Acer  spica- 
tum})  mountain  ash  (Pyrus  Americana),  white  and  v<<]  cherry 
(Prunus  Pennsylvania!),  and  chock  cherry  (Primus  Virginiana). 
Of  shrubs,  we  find  the  round-leafed  currant  (Ribes  rotundifolium  i. 
two  or  three  species  of  blueberries  (Vaccinium  hirsutum  and  /'<  nn- 
sylvanicum),  the  creeping  wintergreen  (GauLtheria  procuml 
arborescent  azalea  (Azalea  arborescent) ,  Stuartia  (Stuartia  pen- 
tagyna),  and  two  species  of  holly  (Ilex  monticola  and  Ilex  mollis), 
and  a  low,  grayish  willow  (Salix  humilis). 

The  gems  of  .this  great  conservatory,  however,  are  the  herba- 
ceous plants,  which  thrive  here  with  unusual  vigor.     The  Carolina 
lily,  with  stems  seven  feet  high,  surrounded  by  a  pyramidal  raceme 
of   deep   orange   and   black-spotted   blossoms,   often    as    many    as 
twenty-five,  is  very  abundant;  likewise  the  Melanthium  Virgimcum, 
five  to  six  feet  high,  with  hundreds  of  small,  star-shaped,  cream- 
colored  flowers  in  an  immense  spreading  panicle;  the  Stenanthium 
augustifolium,  also  a  liliaceous  plant,  resembling  the  former,  flow- 
ers greenish  white,  in  a  tall  raceme;  the  purple  flowering  raspberry 
(Eubus  odoratus),  with  simple  five-lobed  leaves   and   coryn 
large,  showy,  purple  blossoms,  the  whole  plain   very  fragranl  and 
clammy.     The  cow  parsnip  (Heracleum  lanatum)  spreads  its 
and  woolly  leaves  broadly  over  the  ground,  and  lifts  its  flat  umbels 
above  a  man's  head.     White  and  yellow  Baptisiaa  and  i 
tea  (Monarch,  didyma)  contribute  freely  to  this  unaurpaflsab 
play.     The  blue  joint  grass   (Galamagrostis  Canadensis)  and  the 
Muhleribergia  Willdenovii  arc  the  principal  grasses,  both  tall  and 


18  Tennessee  Flora. 

slender.     A  pleasantly  odorous  fern  (Dicksonia  punctilobula)  and 
Aspidium  spinulosum  cover  moist  depressions  of  the  ground. 

SMOKY  MOUNTAINS. 

A  type  of  flora  somewhat  different  from  this  from  the  admixture 
of  truly  Alpine  or  high  Northern  plant  forms  crowns  the  still  loftier 
summits  of  the  Smoky  Mountains  and  the  Eoane  Mountain.  The 
mountain  defiles  and  coves  on  Doe  River  and  Watauga  River  are 
traversed  by  a  narrow-gauge  railroad,  which  presently  terminates 
at  the  Cranberry  Iron  Works,  and  a  stage  road  leads  up  to  Cloud- 
land,  a  mountain  resort  on  the  summit  of  Roane  Mountain,  at  an 
altitude  of  6,600  feet.  Yellow  and  white  pine,  and  also  the  table- 
mountain  pine  (Pinus  pun  gens)  predominate  on  the  mountain 
sides ;  but  white  oak,  chestnut,  cherry,  sugar  maple,  and  also  walnut 
and  hickories,  strong  and  densely  grown,  hold  the  lower  grounds 
and  river  banks.  In  these  moist  and  shady  gorges  abounds  the 
Dicentra  eximia,  a  beautiful  plant.  It  is  a  variety  of  the  bleeding 
heart,  a  well-known  garden  ornament.  The  Adlumia  cirrhosa,  or 
climbing  fumitory,  a  very  graceful  plant,  also  frequently  cultivated 
in  gardens,  yet  common  in  Northern  New  York  and  the  Western 
States,  accompanies  the  former.  A  peculiar  and  very  rare  shrub, 
not  known  elsewhere,  the  Buckleya  distichophylla,  and  the  oilnut 
(Pyrularia  oleifera),  the  beaked  hazelnut  (Corylus  rostrata),  the 
scrub  oak  (Quercus  ilicifolia),  and  other  shrubs  which  are  also 
common  in  the  Ocoee  region  form  the  undergrowth.  The  smooth- 
leaved  Dutchman's  pipe  (Aristolochia  Sipho),  the  climbing  bitter- 
sweet (Celastrus  scandens),  two  species  of.  Lonicera,  and  the  bush 
honeysuckle  {Dier  villa  sessilifolia)  are  lovely  and  odd-shaped 
climbers  or  bushes.  Magnolia  Fraseri  abounds  here.  It  is  beyond 
the  scope  of  this  sketch  to  enumerate  the  species  for  which  the  high 
summits  are  famous  among  botanists.  The  discovery  of  the  sand 
myrtle  (Leiophyllum  buxifolium) ,  a  native  of  the  sandy  pine  bar- 
rens of  New  Jersey,  on  the  summit  of  Roane  Mountain,  is  a  curious 
incident  in  plant  geography.  Rhododendron  Catawliense,  several 
Saxifragas  and  Solidago  §lommerta,  monticola,  spithamea,  the 
Diphylleia  cymosa,  Chelono  Lyoni,  Cardamine  Clematitis,  Paro- 
nychia argyrocoma,  Sedum  Rhodiola,  Geum  radiatum,  Geum  ge- 
niculatum,  Boykinia  aconitifolia  may  serve  as  examples  of  rare 
plants. 

Another  range  of  mountain  flora  we  find  in  the  Cumberland 


Thinnesses    Flora.  19 

Mountains.  Selecting  the  Lookout  near  Chattanooga  for  a  type, 
we  find  its  summit  wooded  with  Quercus  Prinus,  Quercus  rubra, 
Quercus  alba,  Quercus  obtusiloba,  and  Quercus  rrigra;  Pinus  mops, 
Pinus  Tceda,  Pinus  mitis;  Betula  lutea,  Gleditsehm,  Irianuitlms, 
Robinia  Pseudacacia,  several  Caryas  and  C.  microcarpa  among 
them.  Of -shrubs:  Robinia  hispida,  Diervilla  rivularis,  Hex  mollis, 
Stuartia  pentagyna.  Hydrangea  radiata,  and  again  (bul  very  rare) 
Buckleya  distichophylla,  Nemopanthes  Canadensis,  and  in  a  swamp 
Dirca  palustris.  Of  herbaceous  plants:  Utricularia  gibba,  luncus 
Canadensis,  and  Arundinaria  tecta.  On  flat  rocks:  Diamorpha 
pusilla,  Fimbristylis  capillaris,  Kriyia  Virginica,  Arenaria  glabra. 
On  the  cliffs  of  the  crest :  8tipaavenacea,8Uene  rottfndifolia,  Linaria 
Canadensis,  Campanula  divaricata,  Thalictrum  clavatum.  Near 
the  base  of  the  mountain,  on  limestone  ledges:  Gah'sia.  hictn-in  /<■<. 
Callicarpa  Americana,  Triosteum  perfoliatum,  Silphium  brachi- 
atum.  The  Cumberlands  excel  the  Alleghaniea  in  a  greater  variety 
of  ferns.  Besides  all  species  of  the  latter,  we  also  find  here  As* 
plenium  Bradleyi,  Asplenium  pinnatifidmn,  Lygodium  palmatum, 
.Scolopendrium  vulgare,  and  Trichomanes  radicans,  Asplenium  ri- 
ride,  Adiantum  ca  pill  us  Veneris. 

MIDDLE  TENNESSEE. 

The  next  division  embraces  the  valley  of  East  Tennessee  and 
the  entire  area  of  Middle  Tennessee.  Contour  of  surface  and 
geological  structure  result  in  Easf  Tennessee  from  the  combined 
processes  of  folding  and  erosion,  whereby  heterogeneous  Btrata  are 
placed  in  juxtaposition,  the  whole  valley  being  an  often-repeated 
series  of  synclinals  and  anticlinals  of  calcareous  and  siliceous  rocks, 
while  in  Middle  Tennessee  erosion  alone  had  been  at  play. 

A  great  fault  connected  with  the  upheaval  of  the  Pine  and 
Grab  Orchard  Mountains,  and  in  a  line  south  of  it.  an  eroded  an- 
ticlinal, the  Sequatchie  Valley,  designate  in  the  Cumberland  Moun- 
tain region  the  western  terminus  of  those  convulsions  which  in- 
volve the  problem  of  the  stratographv  of  the  Alleghanies  in  so 
difficulties.  West  of  this  line  spread  out  the  horizontal  Btrata  of 
the  Cumberland  table-land,  which  terminates  with  an  abrupl  de- 
scent of  about  1,000  feet  upon  the  highlands  of  Middle  Tenn< 
These  in  turn  overreach  and  encircle  the  floor  of  the  basin  of  Middle 
Tennessee  by  from  500  to  600  feet,  either  in  a  bluff  or  through  a 
gradual  descent. 


20  Tennessee   Flora. 

The  succession  of  strata  is  normal  throughout:  Uppermost  sub- 
carboniferous  limestone  and  chert,  followed  by  the  Devonian  shale; 
lastly,  the  lower  Silurian. 

Irregular  basins,  crossed  and  intersected  by  ridges  of  from  400  to 
600  feet  elevation,  and  this  lower  terrace  again  girded  by  a  plateau, 
is  the  outline  of  Middle  Tennessee.  This  shape  of  surface  is  the 
effect  of  unequal  erosion  through  differently  constituted  strata. 
This  agency  has  been  in  bygone  epochs,  probably  during  the  Cham- 
plain,  much  more  energetically  at  work  than  at  the  present  day. 
Some  superficial  gravel  beds  and  the  iron  ores  in  the  western  part 
of  Middle  Tennessee  have  probably  been  deposited  at  this  period. 
The  floor  of  this  denudation  lies  either  in  the  Nashville  (Hudson) 
or  Trenton  limestone,  while  the  hilltops  are  Devonian  or  subcarbon- 
iferous  shales  or  chert,  sometimes  sandstones.  The  limestones  pro- 
duce the  strongly  calcareous,  very  productive  soil  of  the  lower 
grounds.  The  disintegration  of  the  Devonian  shales  resulted  into 
strata  of  heavy,  impermeable  beds  of  clay  or  loams,  and  the  con- 
comitant swampy  lands  and  the  cherty  and  siliceous  beds  have 
yielded  the  angular  gravels  of  the  poor  hilltops.  The  difference 
of  elevation  is  so  slight  that  it  cannot  essentially  affect  vegetation, 
and  the  greater  or  less  adaptation  only  of  plants  to  certain  soils 
causes  their  appearance  or  disappearance  at  the  limits  of  particular 
geological  areas.     The  phosphatic  rocks  belong  to  this  group. 

Alluvium  is  restricted  to  river  and  creek  bottoms.  The  heavy 
and  fertile  clay  soils  of  the  uplands  are  the  insoluble  residuum  of 
the  fossiliferous,  argillaceous  limestones,  with  more  or  less  com- 
plete lixiviation  of  the  lime  by  atmospheric  precipitations.  In  the 
midst  of  these  is  a  third  class  of  soil,  of  black  color,  full  of  bog  iron 
ore  in  the  shape  of  rounded  grains.  Sulphurated  ferrugineous 
springs,  decomposition  of  pyritical  limestones,  accompanied  by 
perennial  growth  of  cane,  have,  as  it  seems,  generated  it. 

Increase  in  annual  range  of  temperature  and  greater  dryness 
of  air,  as  compared  with  the  former  regions,  cause  the  mountain 
flora  to  disappear  and  to  yield  to  other  designs  in  nature's  garb. 
A  close  botanical  inquiry  into  the  array  of  species  soon  discloses 
the  fact  that  different  assemblies  of  species  congregate  in  the  lime- 
stone and  argillaceo-siliceous  region.  The  former  includes  the 
glades ;  the  latter,  the  barrens,  of  Middle  Tennessee. 

Glades  are  thinly-wooded,  unarable  lands,  with  shallow  soils, 
fit  only  for  pastures.     They  ought  to  remain  in  their  natural  state, 


Tennessee   Flora.  21 

undisturbed  by  cultivation.  To  clear  them  La  to  convert  them  into 
deserts.  In  some  parts  they  are  exclusively  occupied  by  the  cedar, 
with  a  small  percentage  of  deciduous  trees  intermingled. 

Trees  distinguishing  this  ground  and  region  are  the  overcup 
oak  (Querent  lyrata),  bur  oak  (Quercus  macrocarpa),  in  moist 
soils;  the  water  Spanish  oak  (Quercus  Texana),  in  wel  land-. 
The  former  two  are  the  largest  of  our  oaks.  The  yellow  chestnut 
oak  (Quercus  Muhlenbergii)  grows  in  wel  and  dry  soil.  The  shin- 
gle oak  (Quercus  imbricaria),  with  undivided  lanceolate  leaves,  like 
the  willow,  makes  a  large,  well-shaped,  and  very  ornamental  tree. 
White  oaks,  post  oaks,  black  oaks,  and  red  oaks  are  equally  dissemi- 
nated. Elms,  very  large  and  numerous,  add  four  species.  Two  va- 
rieties of  shellbark  hickory  belong  to  rich  bottoms,  and  mocker-nut 
and  pignut  hickory  to  the  hills.  The  pecan  nut  (Ccvrya  olivceformis ) 
occurs  here  and  there  in  single  old  trees,  probably  planted  by 
settlers.  Black  walnut  (Juglans  nigra)  has  formerly  been  co- 
pious; white-walnut  is  scattered  along  the  river  and  creek  banks 
and  swamps.  The  Ohio  buckeye  abounds  on  the  north  Bide  of 
Cumberland  Eiver.  In  Hadley's  Bend,  near  Edgefield  Junction, 
are  groves  of  holly  with  20-inch  diameter  of  trunk.  Catalpas  are 
Tare,  but  the  yellow  wood  (Virgilia  lutea)  and  the  coffee  t  ree  I  Qym- 
nocladus  Canadensis)  are  very  numerous  on  the  rich  hillsides  Bouth 
of  Nashville.  Altogether,  we  have  about  one  hundred  different 
kinds  of  timber  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Nashville. 

The  climbing  form  of  growth  is  an  eminently  Southern  type,  lov- 
ing rich  soils  and  moisture,  addicted  to  the  forest  which  it  is  des- 
tined to  embellish.     Multiform  ligneous  and  herbaceous  climbers, 
stragglers,  and  creepers  tangle  and  barricade  the  woodland-.      Five 
different  grapevines  fill  the  air  in  May  with  the  sweet  fragrai 
their  flowers — the  summer  grape  (Vitis  CBstivalis)  on  dry  or 
ground;  the  winter  grape    (Vitis  cordifolia)    on   rich  and    moist 
lands,  especially  river  banks.     A   variety  of  tin-  with  lobed    ■ 
(Vitis  riparia)   grows  copiously  on   Mill   Creek.     The  rock   e 
(Vitis  rupestris),  on  rocky  bluffs,  is  a  Western  species,  not  discov- 
ered before  east  of  the  Mississippi.     All  these  hear  edible  fruit,  and 
are  serviceable  for  root  grafting  with  imported  varieties,  such  vines 
being  more  resistant  to  the  aggression  of  the  root  phylloxera.     Two 
species  with  inedible  fruit    (Vitis  indivisa  and    Vitis   bipinnaia) 
may  also  be  mentioned.     The  woolly-leaved  Dutchman's  pipe  I 
tolochia  tomentosa),  the  wistaria,  the  bignonia,  and  the  trui 


22  Tennessee   Flora. 

flower  bear  beautiful  or  curiously-shaped  flowers,  but  the  unsightly 
smilax  threatens  with  his  thorns  the  vexed  explorer. 

Several  plants  held  for  exclusively  Western  have  lately  been 
observed  around  Nashville.  The  Solarium  rostratum — from  the 
tribe  of  the  Irish  potato — with  golden  flowers,  foliage  like  the 
watermelon,  elegant  looking,  but  unapproachable  from  the  prickles 
and  thorns  with  which  it  is  beset  all  over,  is  such  an  intruder,  and 
a  very  undesirable  one,  being  an  inexterminable,  all-spreading  weed; 
Oenothera  triloba,  a.  dwarfish  evening  primrose,  not  more  than  a 
span  high,  with  large  yellow  flower,  a  common  plant  on  the  plains; 
and  some  other  less  conspicuous  weeds.  Where  the  soil  thins  out, 
leaving  here  and  there  the  rock  exposed,  or  where  from  the  collapse 
of  subterranean  cavities  the  strata  are  tumbled  about  in  confusion 
and  earth  and  humus  irregularly  distributed,  there  the  heavier 
timber  growth  gives  out,  and  the  cedar  is  the  predominant  growth. 
Its  far-searching  roots  descend  into  the  crevices  and  cavities  of  the 
age-worn  rock.  The  somber  tint  of  the  cedar  delineates  a  cedar- 
barren  from  its  surroundings  at  a  distance,  and  serves  within  its'. 
environs  to  bring  out  with  dazzling  vividness  the  beautiful  green 
of  the  glade  grass,  aglow  with  rose-colored  petalestemons,  sky-blue 
lobelias,  golden  Leavenworthias,  Schoenoliriums  and  shrubby  hy- 
perieums.  The  pink  stonecrop,  Sedum  pulchellum,  covers  acres  of 
surface,  yielding  again  to  equal  profusion  of  the  delicate  white- 
Arenaria  (Arenaria  patula),  or  a  low,  purple-flowered  skullcap 
(Scutellaria  nervosa).  The  Talinum  teretijolium,  span  high,  with 
fleshy  leaves  like  a  portulaca,  the  flower  resembling  the  bloom  of 
a  phlox,  but  of  the  purest  carmine,  finds  room  for  its  tuberous  root- 
lets in  the  smallest  fissures.  It  will  bear  transplanting  even  while 
flowering,  and  grows  well  in  the  garden.  Cream-colored  and  blue 
astragals  (Astragalus  Plattensis  and  Astragalus  caryocarpus) ,  and 
a  purple,  large-flowered,  and  prostrate  psoralea  (Psoralea  suba- 
caulis),  phacelias,  the  blue  false  indigo  (Baptisia  australis), 
bluets,  and  the  Carolina  anemone  (Houstonia  patens,  Anemone 
Caroliniana),  verbenas,  violets  (especially  the  pansylike  Viola 
pedata  var,  bicolor),  the  dwarf  heliotrope  (Heliotr -opium  tenellum), 
the  pale  purple  Phlox  Stellaria  (which  deserves  a  bed  in  every  gar- 
den), and  many,  many  more  assemble — a  natural  conservatory  that 
could  fearlessly  challenge  any  flower  garden  in  the  combined  effect 
of  gayety  and  luxuriance.  For  truth,  my  honored  Tennessee 
friends,  go  and  see,  and  learn  to  appreciate  and  to  preserve  such 


Tennessee   Flora. 

great  ornaments  of  your  native  land.  I  cannol  dwell  longi 
this  point;  suffice  it  to  say  that  the  above  are  only  a  i'-w  of  the  most 
obvious  spring  flowers,  and  thai  every  succeeding  season  has  its 
own  peculiar  growth.  The  hop  tree  (Ptelea  trifoliata),  fragranl 
sumac  (Rhus  aromatica),  Carolina  buckthorn  (Frangula  Caro- 
liniana),  Forestiera  ligustrina,  delightfully  fragrant  when  flower- 
ing in  July,  the  Callicarpa,  with  clusters  of  rosy  flowers  and  violet 
berries,  and  several  kinds  of  hawthorn,  are  the  characteristic  shrubs 
of  these  barrens.  Hackberry,  honey  locust,  winged  elm,  posl  oak 
and  shingle  oak  intermingle  in  limited  oumbers  with  th«-  cedar. 

The  siliceous  and  argillaceous  soils  which  surround  tin-  Silurian 
formation  correspond  to  the  cherty  strata  of  the  subcarboniferous 
and  the  blue  or  black  shales  of  the  Devonian  formation.  The  for- 
mer is  commonly  called  "gravelly  hills,"  and  support-  a  n 
and  monotonous  vegetation.  Black-jack  oak,  Spanish  oak,  red  oak. 
and  black  oak  are  prevailing,  especially  the  former  two.  Posl  oak 
and  white  oak  attain  only  medium  size.  Chestnut,  sourwood,  mock- 
er-nut and  pignut  hickory  are  the  principal  t  rees.  The  shrubbery  is 
represented  by  the  farkleberry  (Vaccinium  wrboreum),  deerberry 
(Vaccinium  stamineum),  black  huckleberry  (Oaylussacia 
nosa),,  Kalmias,  purple  azalea,  chinquapin  chestnut  (Castanea 
puniUa),  Xew  Jersey  tea  (Cean-othus  Americantts)  and  an  im- 
mense amount  of  dwarf  sumac  (Rhus  copallina),  Lespedezas  and 
Desmodimus,  and  later  in  the  season  several  species  of  Coreopsis 
and  Solidago.  The  common  bra.ke  (Pterin  aquilina)  and  the 
beech  fern  (Phegopteris  hexagonoptera)  grow  aboundantly.  The 
sandy,  loamy,  or  argillaceous  soils  of  the  shale  contain  some  valu- 
able farming  lands,  but  a  good  deal  of  it  is  either  too  light  or  too 
wet.  The  underlying  slate  seems  to  form  impermeable  strata,  and 
in  winter  and  spring  large  tracts  of  land  are  covered  with  shallow 
ponds,  which  disappear  only  from  evaporation  in  the  summer  and 
autumn.  These  strata,  underlie  the  Oak  Barrens  (Tullahoma). 
The  vegetation  is  diversified  and  very  interesting.  The  forest.con- 
tains  a  good  selection  of  hardwoods,  and  the  trees  attain  a 
good  size.  Water  oak,  willow  oak.  and  white  oak  grow  v.rv 
sweet  gum  and  black  gum,  in  abundance;  poplar-  and  beech  s, 
as  many  as  in  the  calcareous  soils:  cedars,  only  solitary  and  rare; 
pines  and  firs,  none  at  all.  There  are  neither  pines  Qor  firs  the 
whole  length  of  distance  from  Pulaski  to  Elizabethtown,  Dear 
Louisville,  Ky.,  nor  are  any  found  for  a  greal  distance  easl  or  \\<  b1 


24  Tennessee  Flora. 

of  this  line  (Nashville  and  Decatur  Railroad).  The  scrub  pine  is 
the  only  species  I  ever  observed  in  Middle  Tennessee.  I  found  it 
sparingly  and  confined  to  a  limited  belt  in  the  hills  around  the 
confluence  of  the  Harpeth  and  Turnbull  Rivers,  in  Dickson  County. 
Shrubs  which  are  especially  addicted  to  the  Oak  Barrens  are  the 
large-flowering  hydrangea  {Hydrangea  radiata,  at  the  Cataract,  in 
Tullahoma),  ltea,  with  small  white  flowers  in  drooping  racemes; 
calycanthus,  or  Carolina  allspice;  service  berry  (Amelanchier  Can- 
adensis), the  narrow-leaved  crabapple  (Pyrus  angustifolia),  hazel- 
nut (Oorylus  Americana) ,  and  in  wet  lands  the  button  bush  (Ceph- 
alanthus  occidentalis) ,  chockberry  (Pyrus  arbutifolia) ,  arrow- 
wood  (Viburnum nudum) , Southern  buckthorn  (Bumelia  lycioides), 
smooth  alder  (Alnus  serrulata),  dwarf  gray  willow  (Salix  tristis). 
The  moist  woodlands  and  swamps  abound  in  showy  orchids,  lilia- 
ceae,  and  aquatic  plants.  Three  species  of  flags  (Iris  versicolor, 
Iris  Virginica,  Iris  cristata) ,  Turk's  cap  lily  (Lilium  superbum) , 
blackberry  lily  (Pardanthus  chinensis),  Zygadenus  limantlnoides , 
narrow-leaved  false  hellebore  (Stenanthium  angustifohum) ,  fly 
poison  (Amiantliium  muscaetoxicum) .  Several  species  of  or- 
chids :  Habenaria,  Pogonia,  Corallorrhiza,  Calopogon,  and  Cypri- 
pedium;  various  Sabbathias,  a  host  of  Pycnanthemums,  Asters, 
Gerardias,  Helianthus,  button  snake  roots  (Liatris  sqwarrosa,  Lia- 
tris  graminifolia) ,  and  some  very  elegant  grasses,  the  woolly  beard- 
gross  (Erianthus  alopecuriodes,  Eriantlms  brevibarbis,  and  Erian- 
thus  strictus),  Indian  grass  (Sorghum  nutans),  wood  reedgrass 
(Cinna  arundinacea) .  Among  ferns  we  find  a  stately  growth  of 
Osmundas,  especially  the  Osmunda  regalis  and  Claytoniana,  attain- 
ing three  to  five  feet;  the  chain  fern  (Woodwardia  angustifolia), 
Aspidium  Goldieanum,  also  becoming  sometimes  four  feet  high; 
sensitive  fern  (Onoclea  sensibilis).  Rushes,  sages,  and  grasses  pre- 
sent themselves  in  interminable  succession  to  the  well-trained  bota- 
nist who  understands  how  to  distinguish  them. 

WEST  TENNESSEE. 

The  Tennessee  River  very  nearly  indicates  in  its  northern 
course  a  geological  division,  flowing,  as  it  does,  along  an  ancient 
Devonian  and  Silurian  shore  line.  A  few  miles  west  and  parallel 
with  the  river  rises  the  eastern  escarpment  of  an  undulating  plateau 
of  from  only  200  to  300  feet  elevation  above  the  waters  of  the  Ten- 
nessee River.     This  irregular  table-land  slopes  gradually  toward 


Tennessee   Flora. 

the  Mississippi  River  and  terminates  there  in  another  bluff,  which 
rises  about  200  feet  over  the  floods  of  the  Mississippi.  The  eastern 
portion  of  this  area  is  composed  of  cretaceous  deposits,  and  the 
western  portion  is  composed  of  tertiary  and  post-tertiary  dep 
either  sands  or  soft  cretaceous  shala  Solid,  often  ferruginous, 
sandstones  appear  at  the  surface,  scattered  in  Lncohereni  masi 

We  behold  no  longer  limpid  streams,  rippling  over  rocky  bot- 
toms, sided  by  cliffs  and  bluffs.     Instead  of  them,  we  find  lag 
and  swampy   borders,  stretching  along   muddy-looking  waters   of 
sluggish  streams. 

From  distance  already,  before  crossing  the  Tennessee  River,  we 
are  in  sight  of  towering  cypresses.     While  a  thousand   miles 
from  here  they  yet  occupy  the  shore  line  of  the  Atlantic,  here  the 
shore  line  has  receded  to  the  Gulf  and  left  the  cypress  behind.  Their 
dimensions  are  truly  enormous.     The   far-spreading  roots  emerge 
like  sharp-backed  ridges  from  the  brownish  Lagoon,  gradually  creep- 
ing up  and  girding  with  buttresslike  projections  the  many-angled 
column.     A  perpendicular  shaft  ascends  to  a  height  of  from  I 
150  feet  and  then  spreads  in  a  flat  or  hemispherical  crown.     Such  I 
have   seen,  in   1864-70,  near   Johnsonville.     Cypress   BwampE 
along   both   big   rivers,   and    many    other    extensive    Bwamps    and 
swampy  lands  are  along  every  wafer  course — the   most,  perhaps, 
along  Big  Sandy.     It  may,  therefore,  be  expected  that  a  great  many 
more  aquatic  species  and  such  as  inhabit  marshy  land-  exisl  in  this 
region  than  in  either  East  or  Middle  Tennessee.     Mv  own  experi- 
ence is,  however,  limited  and  restricted  to  one  point  on  the  M  — 
sippi   River — the   regions    of    Brownsville.    Humboldt.    McKenzie, 
Hollow  Rock,  and  Johnsonville,  in  which  place-  I  have  made  inter- 
esting collections. 

In  the  cypress  swamps  and  boggy  lowlands  we  find  the  planer 
tree,  or  water  elm  (Planera  aquatica)  :  the  cypress  (  Taxodium  dis- 
tichum),the  stateliest  of  our  timber  trees;  the  Bwamp  locusl   I 
ditschia    monosperma)  ;    the    tupelo    gums    (Xifssn.   sylvatica    and 
Nyssa  aquatica) ;  the  mountain  sweet  pepper  bush  (Cle4hra  acumi- 
nata), so  frequent  in  the  mountains  of  Kast   Tennessee,  Inn   rare 
in  Middle  and  West  Tennessee:   the  Bwamp  white  i 
bicolor),  the  black  alder  (Ilex  verticillata) ,  the  Bwamp  holly 
decidua),  intertwined   with  the  climbing    bittersweei    (Cekutrus 
scandens),  and  the  supple-jack  (Berchemia  volvbUis).     Two 
thorns  (Rhamnus  Carolirtiana  and  Rhamntu  lana  <</<//</)   are 
D.  H.  HILL  LIBRARY 


26  Tennessee  Flora. 

very  frequent  in  the  bottoms.  One  of  the  showiest  shrubs  of  this 
region,  the  lately-discovered  Hypericum  lobocarpum,  which  would 
make  a  splendid  adornment  of  every  garden,  grows  copiously 
around  Hollow  Rock.  It  makes  a  flat-topped  bush  from  six  to 
eight  feet  high.  In  the  swamps  float  the  water  shields  (Brasenia 
peltata  and  Cabomba  Caroliniana),  while  the  water  chinquapin 
(Nelumbo  lutea)  rears  its  big,  peltate  foliage  and  large,  sulphur- 
yellow  flowers  high  above  the  brownish  waters  of  the  lagoon. 

Of  other  frequent  aquatics  I  may  only  mention  the  Limnantlie- 
mum  lacunosum,  Ranunculus  multifhdus,  Utricularia  biflora.  Spe- 
cies of  Lemna,  Wolffia,  and  the  neat  Azolla  cast  a  green  veil  over 
the  quiet  pools.  The  Indian  rye  {Zizania  aquatica),  a  tall  grass, 
which  the  Indians  used  to  harvest,  using  the  grains  for  meal,  is 
here  in  its  proper  sphere,  and  its  tall  heads  look  down  upon  patches 
of  sword  lilies,  Iris  cuprea,  and  Iris  hexagona;  and  all  the  swampy 
flats  are  filled  with  Scirpus  debilis,  Carices,  and  Rhynchosporas. 

On  higher  grounds  congregate  Dalea  alopecuroides,  Galium  Ar- 
hansanum,  Erynqium  prostratum,  MarshaUia  lanceolata,  Ambrosia 
bidentata,  Helenium  tenuifolium,  Senecio  lobatus,  Hydrolea  af- 
finis,  Verbena  striata,  Polypremum  procumbens,  Stillingia  syl- 
vatica,  Lithospermum  angustifolium,  Habenaria  virescens,  Juncus 
militariSj  Spartina  cynosuroides,  Aristida  ramosissima. 

From  the  suburbs  of  Memphis  I  received  the  elegant  Erogrostis 
oxylepis.  On  the  sandy  shores  of  the  Mississippi  River  abounds  a 
species  of  horsetail,  the  Eguisetum  robustum,  and  the  invidious 
burgrass  that  sticks  to  clothing  and  spoils  the  vlieses  of  the  sheep 
with  its  sticky  spikes.      (Cenchrus  tribidoides.) 


Synopsis  of  the  Flora  of  Tennessee. 


Arranged  according  to  the  system  of  Engler  and  Prantlt  in  their 
44  Naturliche  Pflanzenfamilien." 


BOTANICAL  TEXT-BOOKS  AND  LITERATURE  CONSULTED. 


"Synoptical   Flora  of   North  America."     By  Asa  Gray.     (As  far  as  out.) 

New  York.     1884. 
"The  Illustrated  Flora  of  the  Northern  United  States  and  Canada."     By 

Nathaniel   Britton  and  Hon.  Addison    Brown.     Three  volumes.     New 

York.     1896. 
"The  Grasses  of  Tennessee."     By  F.  Lamson  Scribner.    Two  parts. 

Knoxville.     1894. 
"A  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Northern  United  States."     By  Asa  Gray. 

Fifth  edition.     1886. 
"Flora  of   the   Southern   United   States,  with   Supplement."     By  A.  W. 

Chapman.     New  York.     1870. 
"Memoirs  of  the  Torrey  Botanical  Club,  Vol.  III.,  No.  1."     Report  on  the 

"Flora  of   Western  North  Carolina."     By  John  K.  Small  and  A.  A. 

Heller.     New  York.     1892.     Report  on  the  "Botanical  Expedition  of 

Southwestern  Virginia. "     By  John  K.   Small  and  Anna  Murray  Vail. 

New  York.     1893. 
"Biltmore  Botanical  Studies,  Vol.  I.,  No.  1."     By  C.  D.  Beadle  and  C.  L. 

Boynton.     London.     1901. 
"Studies   on    Crataegus,  Vols.    I.    and   II."     By    C.  D.  Beadle.     Chicago. 

1899. 


Tennessee   Flora.  27 


pteridophyta: 

OPHIOGLOSSACE.E  Presl. 
OPHIOGLOSSUM  L. 

1.  Ophioglossum  vulgatum   L.     Adder's-tongue.     In   moisl 

spots  in  the  cedar  glades  at  Lavergne,  Williamson  County. 
May,  June. 

BOTRYCHIUM  Sw.  Schrad. 

i.  Botrychium  ternatum    (Thunb)    Sw.     Moonwort,   grape 
fern.     O.  S.     May,  June.     M. 

2.  B.   Virginianum    (L)    Sw.      Rich,   moist   woods.      (  ).    S. 
May. 

3.  B.  dissectum  Sprengel.     With  the  former.     May.  June. 

OSMUNDACE^:  R.  Br. 
OSMUNDA  L. 

1.  Osmunda    regalis    L.     Royal    fern.     Bogs    and    swamps, 
mountains  and  lowlands.     Frequent.     O.  S.      May.  June.     .1/. 

2.  O.  cinnamomea   L.     Cinnamon  fern.     In   marshes,  high 
grounds  or  low  grounds.     O.  S.     May-July. 

3.  O.   Claytoniana   L.     Cumberland  and   Alleghany    Moun- 
tains.    May,  June. 

HYMENOPHYLLACE.E  Gaud. 

TRICHOMANES  L. 

Trichomanes  radicans  Sw.     Bristle  fern.     Underneath  wet. 
shelving  rocks.     Sewanee.     June,  July. 

SCHIZAEACEJE   Reichenh. 
LYGODIUM   Sw.  Schrad. 
1.  Lygodium    palmatum     (Bernh.)     Sw.      Climbing    fern. 
Cumberland    Mts.     Rockwood.     Graborchard.     Piney     Falls, 

Mrs.  Bennett.     July,  August. 

POLYPODIACE.i:  R.   Br. 
ONOCLEA  L. 

1.  Onoclea    sensibilis    L.      Wet    meadow-    and    borders 
ponds.     O.  S.     June. 

2.  O.    sensibilis    obtusilobata    Torr.      Williamson    County. 
July,  August. 

♦Arranged  after  W.  R.  Maxon's  List  of  Ferns  of  North  America   in 
Smithsonian  Publications,  No.  1226,  May.  1901. 


28  Tennessee  Flora. 

WOODSIA  R.  Br\ 

i.  Woodsia  Ilvenis  R.  Br.  Knox  Count  v.  A.  Ruth.  June,. 
July. 

2.  W.  obtusa  (Spreng.)  Torr.  Very  common.  O.  S. 
July,  August. 

DENNSTAEDTIA  Bernh. 

Dennstaedtia  punctilobula  (Michx.)  Moore.  Dicksonia 
punctilobula  L'Her.  Higher  Cumberland  and  Alleghanies. 
Piney  Falls.     Mrs.  Bennett.     August. 

FILIX  Adans. 

Filix  bulbifera  (L.)  Underw.  Cystopteris  bulifera  Bernh. 
Shady  cliffs  around  Nashville,  Cumberland  Mts.     July. 

F.  fragilis  (L.)  Underw.  Cystopteris  fragilis  Bernh.  Moun- 
tains and  lowlands.     O.  S.     May-July. 

POLYSTICHUM  Roth. 

Polystichum  acrostichoides  (Michx.)  Kuntze.  Dryopteris 
acrostichoides  Kuntze.  Christmas  fern.  Very  common. 
O.  S.     June-August. 

DRYOPTERIS  Adans. 

Dryopteris  Novaeboboracensis  A.  Gray.  Moist  grounds  in 
the  oak  barrens  of  M.  Tenn.     Tullahama.     July-September. 

D.  thelypteris  (L.)  Asa  Gray.  Knoxville,  L.  F.  Scribner. 
June,  July. 

D.  Goldieana  (Hook.)  A.  Gray.  .'Aspidium  Goldieanum 
Hook.  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.  Frequent.  July, 
August. 

D.  marginalis  (L.)  A.  Gray.  Aspidium  marginale  Sw. 
Over  the  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.  Leaves  evergreen. 
July,  August.     M. 

D.  spinulosa  (Retz.)  Kuntze.     Smoky  Mts. 

D.  spinulosa  intermedia  (Miihl.)  Underwood.  Wolf  Creek. 
Cocke  County,  Clingman's  Dome.     July. 

D.  spinulosa  dilatata  (Hoffm.)  Underw.  With  the  former. 
Julv,  August. 

PHEGOPTERIS  F^e. 

Phegopteris  Phegopteris  (L.)  Underw.  Beech  fern.  Phe- 
gopteris  polypodioides  F^e.     Mts.  of  East  Tennessee. 

Ph.  hexagonoptera  (Michx.)  F6e.  Highlands  of  Middle 
Tennessee.     Frequent ;  leaves,  fragrant.     August. 

WOODWARDIA  J.  E.  Smith. 

Woodwardia  areolata  (L.)  Moore.  Woodwardia  angusti- 
folia  J.  E.  Smith.     Chain  fern.     Bogs.     O.  S.     July,  August. 


Tennessee    Flora. 

PHYLLITIS  Ludwig. 

Phyllitis  Scolopendrium  (L.)  Newm.     Hart's  tongue. 
lopondrium    vulgare   J.    E.    Smith.      Near    South    Pittsburg, 
Cumberland  Alts.     R.  M.  Middleton.  Jr.     June-Augr. 

CAMPTOSORUS   Link. 

Camptosorus  rhizophyllus  (L.)  Link.  Walking  fern ;  com- 
mon.    O.  S.     June-August. 

i 

ASPLENIUM   L. 

Asplenium  pinnatifidun  Nutt.  Cumberland  plateau  and 
Lookout  Mountain.     May-July. 

A.  viride  Huds.  Bluffs  near  South  Pittsburg.  R.  M. 
Middleton,  Junior. 

A.  parvulum   Mart   and   Gal.     On   limestone   rocks.     (  I     S 
June-October. 

A.  platyneuron  (L.)  Oakes.  Asplenium  ebeneum  Ait.  On 
limestone  rocks ;  common.     O.   S.     July-September. 

A.  Trichomanes  L.  On  schists  and  siliceous  rocks.  Chil- 
howee  and  Cumberland  Mts.     June-August. 

A.  angustifolium  Michx.  Rich,  damp  woodlands.  (  >.  S. 
July,  August. 

A.  Ruta-muraria  L.  On  limestone  and  siliceous  rocks  in 
the  valleys  and  in  the  mountains.     July,  August. 

A.  montanum  Willd.  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  \fts. 
June-August. 

A.  Bradleyi  DC.  Eaton.  On  standstone  rocks,  summit  of 
Lookout  Mountain;  also  Sewanee,  E.  Kirby  Smith;  Sequat- 
chee  Valley,  Middleton.     June-August. 

ATHYRIUM  Roth.  O.  C. 

Athyrium   acrostichoides   Desv.      Athyrium    thelypleroides 

Michx.     Highlands  of  Middle  Tennessee. 

A.  Filix-foemina  (L.)  Bernh.  Lady  fern;  common.  I  I  S 
M. 

A.  Filix-foemina  angustum  Willd.     Bogs  at  Hollow  Rock, 

West  Tennessee. 

ADIANTUM  L. 

Adiantum  Capillus-Veneris  L.  Venus  hair  fern.  Cumber- 
land Mts.,  near  South  Pittsburg,  four  miles  fr.»m  furnace,  J. 
E.  Wall,  Jr.;  also  near  South  Pittsburg,  with  fronds  two  feel 

in  length,  by  R.  M.  Middleton,  Jr.     May.  June.      1/ 

A.  pedatum    L.       Maiden    hair    fern.       Rich,    moist    w< 
O.  S.     May-July.     M. 


30  Tennessee  Flora. 

PTERIDIUM  Scop. 

Pteridium  aquilinum  (L.)  Kuhn.  Bracken  fern.  The  larger 
form  in  rich,  moist  woods,  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts. 

Pt.  aquilinum  pseudocaudatum  (L.)  Clute.  A  form  common 
in  siliceous  soils,  and  gravelly  hill  lands.  O.  S.  July-Sep- 
tember. 

PELL^A  Link. 

Pellaea  atropurpurea  (L.)  Link.  Cliff  brake.  On  exposed 
situations  on  limestone  banks  and  cliffs.  O.  S.  June-Sep- 
tember. 

CHEILANTHES  Sw. 

Cheilanthes  Alabamensis  (Buckl.)  Kuntze.  Limestone 
rocks ;  frequent  in  E.  and  M.  Tenn.     July-September. 

Ch.  lanosa  Michx.  Ch.  vestita  (Sw.)  Watt.  Bluffs  on 
Cumberland  River,  cedar  glades  under  cedars,  Mts.  of  East 
Tennessee.     June-September. 

Ch.  tomentosa  Link.  Bluffs  on  Ocoee  River.  Fronds  often 
2  feet  long.     Also  South  Pittsburg.     Cumberland  Mts. 

POLYPODIUM  L. 

Polypodium  vulgare  L.  On  rocks  and  on  the  ground,  Cum- 
berland and  Alleghany  Mts.     Summer.     M. 

P.  polypodioides  (L.)  A.  S.  Hitchcock.  P.  incanum  Sw. 
Covering  trunks  of  trees,  on  rocks,  and  on  the  ground.  O.  S. 
June-October. 

SALVINIACE^]  Reichenb. 

AZOLLA  Lam. 

Azolla  Caroliniana  Willd.  On  a  weir  or  millpond,  near 
Riceville,  McMinn  County,  and  W.  Tenn.  cyprtss  swamps. 
July. 

EQUISETACE^]  Michx. 

EQUISETUM  L. 

Equisetum  arvense  L.  Field  horsetail.  Moist  fields,  Cave 
Spring,  E.  Tenn. 

E.  robustum  A.  Br.  Sandy  banks  of  Mississippi  River, 
W.  Tenn. 

E.  hyemale  L.  Common  scouring  rush.  Along  Holston 
River.     J.  K.  Small. 

LYCOPODIACE^E  Michx. 

LYCOPODIUM  L.     Club  Moss. 

Lycopodium  Selago  L.     Roane  Mt.     T.  W.  Chickering. 
L.  lucidulum  Michx.     Sewanee.     Rugbee.     Mrs.  M.  S.  Per- 
cival. 


Tennessee  Flora.  i  i 

L.  obscurum  L.  Ground  pine.  Lycopodium  dendroitfeum 
Michx.  Wolf  Creek,  Cocke  County.  Cranberry,  on  Doe 
River.     Cumberland  Mts. 

L.  complanatum  L.  Trailing  Christmas-green.  Over  tin- 
Cumberland  Mts. 

SELAGINELLACEJE  Underw. 
SELAGINELLA  Beauv. 

Selaginella  tortipila  R.   Br.      Dry  rocks  in  Ocoee  Valley. 

July-October. 

S.  apus  Sprengel.  Moist,  shaded  grounds;  often  among 
the  grass.     O.  S.     June-September. 

S.  rupestris  (L)  Spreng.  Dry  rocks  and  gravelly  lull-. 
O.  S. 

ISOETACE.^  Underw. 
ISOETES  L. 

*Isoetes  Butleri  immaculata  Engelm.  Cedar  glades  near  La- 
vergne.  West  Nashville  ("  New  Town"),  near  Nashville. 
in  miry  grass  plots. 

SPERMATOPHYTA. 
GYMNOSPERM.E. 

PINACEiE  Lindl. 
PINUS   L. 

Pinus  Strobus  L.  White  pine.  Cumberland  Mts.  and  prom- 
inently the  Alleghanies  along  the  slopes  of  the  highest  ridges, 
where  it  frequently  constitutes  two-thirds  of  the  status  of  the 
forest  over  extensive  areas,  reaching  an  altitude  of  from  ioo  to 
175  feet.     It  is  a  very  clean  and  graceful  tree.     May.     M. 

P.  Virginiana  Miller.  P.  inops  Ait.  Scrub  pine.  Rocky, 
dry  mountain  slopes.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

P.  echinata  Miller.  Yellow  pine.  Spruce  pine.  P.  mitis 
Michx.  Formerly  abundant,  clading  the  lower  ridges  of  the 
valley  of  East  Tennessee;  presently  much  reduced  in  num- 
bers.    May,  June. 

P.  pungens  Michx.  f.  Table  mountain  pine.  Frequent  in 
the  Smoky  Mt.  range.     Altitude  from  40  to  80  feet.     May. 

P.  rigida  Mill.  Pitch  pine.  With  the  former,  and  of  about 
the  same  size.     May. 

*Dioecious,  with  a  subglobose  trunk,  bright  green,  rather  firm  leaf. 
sometimes  as  many  as  60,  6  to  9  inches  long;  sporangium,  without 
spots;  macrospores,  0.40-0.56  mm.  diameter;  microspores,  0.029-031  mm. 
long,  spinulose. 


32  Tennessee  Flora. 

P.  Taeda  L.  Loblolly  pine.  Old  field  pine.  This  pine  is 
the  most  frequent  in  the  southeast  corner  of  the  State,  along 
Conasauga  Creek,  extending  down  into  Georgia.  A  large 
tree  reaches  in  favorable  ground  to  a  height  of  150  feet.  April, 
May. 

PICEA  Link. 

Picea  Mariana  (Mill.)  B.  S.  T.  Abies  nigra  Ait.  Black 
spruce.  Highest  points  of  the  Smokies.  On  White  Top 
Mountain.     Southwest  Virginia.     J.  K.  Small.     May,  June. 

P.  rubra  Link.  Red  spruce.  With  the  former.  Both  are 
slender  trees.     May. 

TSUGA  Carr. 

Tsuga  Canadensis  (L.)  Carr.  Hemlock.  Along  water 
courses  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.  One  of  our  largest 
forest  trees,  attaining  a  height  of  from  150  to  180  feet  by 
from  6  to  7  feet  diameter.     April.     M. 

T.  Caroliniana  Engelm.  Abies  Caroliniana  Chapm.  Does 
not  grow  to  the  sublime  height  of  the  former,  scarcely  ex- 
ceeding 50  or  75  feet.  High  mountains  on  the  border  of  North 
Carolina.     April. 

ABIES  Juss. 

Abies  Fraseri  (Pursh.)  Lindl.  Pinus  Fraseri  Balsame  Fir. 
Smoky  Mts.  Summit  of  Roane  Mt.  J.  W.  Chickering.  May, 
June. 

TAXODIUM  (L.)  C.  Rich. 
Taxodium  distichum  (L.)  L.  C.  Rich.  Cypress.  The  larg- 
est conifer  in  the  Eastern  United  States.  Along  Tennessee 
River  and  Mississippi  River  in  West  Tennessee  and  their  af- 
fluents, in  the  bayous  and  cypress  swamps,  it  attains  an  alti- 
tude of  perhaps  200  feet  by  12  feet  diameter  near  the  ground. 
The  extensive  railroad  trussels  and  bridges  in  West  Tennes- 
see have  been  built  from  it.  The  wood  stands  exposure  to 
wet  and  atmosphere  better  than  any  other  soft-wood  timber. 
May,  June. 

THUJA  L. 

Thuja  occidentalis  L.  White  cedar.  Along  Holston  River 
in  the  mountains  of  E.  Tenn.     A.  Ruth. 

JUNIPERUS  L. 

Juniperus  Virginiana  L.  Red  cedar.  Scatteringly  O.  S. 
Forming  forests  of  nearly  exclusive  cedar  growth  in  the  basin 
of  M.  Tenn.  Cedar  glades,  with  a  diversified  and  peculiar 
flora.     April,  May.     Fruit  matures  in  September  and  October. 


Tennessee   Flora. 

TAXACEJE  Lindl. 

TAXUS  L. 

Taxus  minor  (Michx.)  Britton.  American  Yew.  Tax  us 
baccata  var.  minor  Michx.  Waters  of  Holston  River.  [.  K. 
Small. 

CLASS  2.     ANGIOSPERMAE 

SUBCLASS  1.      MONOCOTYLEDON  i;s. 

TYPHACEJE  J.  St.  Hil. 
TYPHA  L. 

Typha  latifolia  L.  Cat  tail.  In  marshes.  O.  S.  Fune, 
July. 

T.    angustifolia    L.      Apparently    rare.      Ducktown,  Polk 

County,  near  Kingston  Springs.     In  ponds  and  ditches.  Tunc. 

July. 

SPARGANIACEJE  Agardh. 
SPARGANIUM  L. 

Sparganium  eurycarpum  Engelm.  Cleveland.  E.  Tenn.  ; 
Tullahoma;  Nashville.     May. 

S.  androcladum  (Engelm.)  Morong.  S.  simplex  var.  Nut- 
tallii  A.  Gray.     O.  S.     One-mile  pond,  Nashville,     July. 

NAIADES  Lindl. 
POTAMOGETON   L. 

Potamogeton  natans  L.  Floating  pond  weed.  Wolf  River, 
W.  Tenn.     Dr.  Egeling. 

P.  perfoliatus  L.     Wolf  River,  Memphis.     Dr.  Egeling. 

P.  pusillus  L.     Wolf  Creek.     Cocke  County. 

P.  Spirillus  Tuckerm.  Pond  at  new  bridge,  Nashville. 
August. 

P.  diversifolius  Raf.  P.  hybridus  Michx.  Cumberland 
River,  Nashville;  Tullahoma  Creek.  Tullahoma.  July-Sep- 
tembers 

P.  foliosus  Raf.  P.  pauciflorus  Pursh.  O.  S.  June-Au- 
gust. 

P.  Nuttallii  Cham,  and  Sch.  P.  Claytonn  I  uckerm. 
Mountain  streams  of  E.  Tenn.     June-August. 

ZANNICHELIA  L. 

Zannichelia   palustris    L.      In   ponds   and    springs.      O.    S. 

June-August. 
2 


34  Tennessee  Flora. 

ALISMACE-E  D.  C. 

ALISMA  L. 

Alisma  Plantago-aquatica  L.  In  shallow  water.  O.  S. 
June-September. 

ECHINODORUS  Rich.  Engelm. 

Echinodorus  radicans  Engelm.  Swamps  along  Cumber- 
land River.     July. 

SAGITTARIA  L. 

Sagittaria  latifolia  Willd.  Broad-leaved  arrow  head. 
Ponds  and  shallow  waters.     O.  S.     August-September. 

S.  latifolia  pubescens  Michl.     East  Tennessee. 

S.  latifolia  angustifolia  Engelm.  Hollow  Rock,  West  Ten- 
nessee. 

S.  graminea  Michx.     West  Tennessee. 

VALISNERIACE^J  Dumort. 

PHILOraiA  Raf. 

Philotria  Canadensis  (Michx.)  Britton.  Elodea  Canaden- 
sis Michx.  (Anacharis  Canadensis  Planch.).  Stagnant  wa- 
ters.    O.  S.     May-August. 

GRAMINE^E  Juss. 

MAYIDE^J. 
ZEA    L. 

Zea  Mays  L.  Indian  corn.  Cultivated  in  many  varieties, 
it  constitutes  the  most  important  field  crop  in  the  State. 
Sometimes  it  is  self-sown  at  the  roadside,  but  it  does  not  at- 
tain any  growth  without  cultivation.     M. 

TRIPSACUM  L. 

Tripsacum  dactyloides  L.  Gama  grass.  In  moist  pastures 
near  Hickman.  A  large  patch  in  the  old  graveyard  in  Nash- 
ville.    June-September. 

i 

ANDROPOGONACE^E. 
ERIANTHUS  Michx. 

Erianthus  alopecuroides  (L.)  Ell.  Plum  grass.  Old  fields, 
Dickson  County.     Tullahoma.     September,  October. 

E.  strictus  Baldw.  Tullahoma.  Swamps  near  lackson. 
S.  M.  Bain. 


Tennessee   Flora. 

E.  brevibarbis  Michx.     Mitchellville,  Sumner   bounty. 
E.  contortus  Ell.     Hiwassee  Vallev.     A.  Ruth.      E.  Smallii 
C.  V.  Nash. 
E.  Ravennae  Beauv.     Frequently  cultivated,. maturing  seeds 

and  spreading  outside  of  cultivation.     Jul  v. 

ANDROPOGON  L. 

Andropogon  scoparius  Michx.  Broom  grass.  (  >ld  fields. 
O.  S.     August-October. 

A.  scoparius  multirameus  Haekel.  Banks  of  Cumberland 
River. 

A.  argyreus  Schult.  Ocoee  Valley.  Vicinity  of  Knoxville. 
Scribner. 

A.  furcatus  Miihl.  A.  provincialis  Lam.  O.  S.  Augusl 
September. 

A.  Virginianus  L.  A.  dissitiflorus  Michx.  O.  S.  August, 
September. 

A.  Virginicus  vaginatus  Chapm.     With  the  former. 

A.  Elliottii  Chapm.  A.  clandestinus  Hale.  (  Occurs  in  two 
forms  promiscuously  near  Tullahoma:  var.  genuina  and  var. 
gracilis  Hack.     September,  October. 

A.  glomeratus  (Walt.)  b.  s.  p.  a.  macrourus  Michx.  Sandy 
soils.     O.  S.     October. 

CHRYSOPOGON  Trin. 
Chrysopogon  avenaceus   Michx.      Wild   oat   grass.      <  ).    S. 

Old  fields. 

Ch.  nutans  (L.)  Bentham.  Old.  sandy  fields.  Dick- mi 
Qounty;  Knoxville,  on  dry  hills.     Scribner. 

SORGHUM  Pers. 

Sorghum  Halepense  (L.)  Pers.  Johnson  grass.  (  >ld  fields 
and  waste  grounds.  O.  S.  July-September.  Introduced  for 
forage,  but  frequently  abandoned  as  unsuitable  for  regular 
cultivation  and  inferior  in  nutritive  qualities. 

S.  saccharatum  Pers.  Chinese  sugar  cane.  Largely  culti- 
vated for  production  of  molasses. 

S.  saccharatum  (var.)  technicum  ITaeckl.  Broom  corn. 
Cultivated  for  the  manufacture  of  brooms. 

S.  vulgare.  Pers.  Chicken  corn.  Occasionally  cultivated 
for  poultry  feed. 

PANUK.K. 
PASPALUM  L. 

Paspalum  mucronatum  Miihl.  P.  fluitans  Smith.  Slow- 
streams,  floating.     July-September.     O.  S. 


36  Tennessee  Flora. 

Paspalum  membranaceum  Walt.  P.  Walterianum  Schult. 
Moist  and  miry  soils,  along  Cumberland  River,  and  in  the 
barrens.     September. 

P.  distichum'L.  Joint  grass.  Low  grounds,  margin  of 
points.     O.  S.     August,  September. 

P.  dilatatum  Poir.     Memphis.     August,  September. 

P.  platycaule  Poir.  P.  compressum  Nees.  Cultivated  at 
the  Knoxville  Experiment  Station.     Scribner. 

P.  pubiflorum  glabrum  Vasey.  Vicinity  of  Nashville,  Belle 
Meade.  Scribner.  Lake  County,  near  Mississippi  River.  S. 
M.  Bain.     June-August. 

P.  Boscianum  Flugge.  P.  purpurascens  Ell.  Knoxville. 
L.  F.  Scribner.     Hiwassee  Valley.     A.  Ruth.     September. 

P.  Floridanum  Michx.  Moist  fields,  West  Tennessee.  S. 
M.  Bain.     September. 

P.  laeve-pilosum  Scrib.     With  the  former. 

P.  ciliatifolium  Michx.  Common  in  grass  plots.  O.  S. 
July-September. 

P.  longipedunculatum  Le  Conte.  Frequent.  O.  S.  July- 
September. 

P.  longipedunculatum  debile  Michx.  Damp,  sandy  soil,  at 
the  pond.     Pond  Station,  Dickson  County.     July. 

PANICUM  L. 

Panicum  Crus-galli  L.  Barnyard  grass.  Barnyards,  ponds, 
and  ditches.     O.  S.     August-October. 

P.  Crus-galli  muticum  Vasey.  Streets  of  Nashville.  Au- 
gust, September. 

P.  Waited  Pursh.  P.  Crus-galli  hispidum  Torr.  Very 
common  O.  S.  in  water  and  in  barnyards.     September. 

P.  colonum  L.  Miry  places  along  Cumberland  River.  La- 
vergne.     September. 

P.  gibbum  Ell.  Madison  County.  S.  M.  Bain.  E.  Tenn. 
A.  Ruth. 

P.  hians  Ell.  P.  melicarium  Michx.  Memphis.  Dr.  Ege- 
ling. 

P.  rostratum  Miihl.  P.  anceps  Michx.  Moist  places  in 
the  cedar  glades,  Lavergne.     July. 

P.  agrostidiforme  Lam.  P.  agrostoides  Trin.  Wet  ground. 
O.  S.     September. 

P.  elongatum  Pursh.  P.  agrostoides  Miihl.  Ditches  and 
ponds.     O.  S.     July-September. 

P.  virgatum  L.  Islands  in  Cumberland  River.  Sandy  soil 
in  the  barrens  at  Tullahoma.     July-September. 

P.  sphaerocarpum  Ell.  Cedar  glades.  The  earliest  of  all 
our  Panicums.     May. 


Tennessee    Flora. 

P.  microcarpon  M/iihl.     P.  multiflorum  Ell.     In  moist   and 

rich  soils,  Craggy  Hope,  Cheatham  County.     (>>-.n<    Valley. 
June,  July. 

P.  Porterianum  Nash.  P.  latifolium  Walt.  (  ).  S.  Ap- 
pears early.     May,  June. 

P.    commutatum    Schult.      P.    nervosum    Miihl.      I  Till  - 
M.  Tenn.     May- July. 

P.  Columbianum  Scribn.     Fide  Illust.  Flora.     Appendix. 

P.  macrocarpon  Le  Conte.  Dry  hillsides  on  Mill  Creek, 
Nashville.     July. 

P.  clandestinum  L.  Rich  soil  along  river  banks.  Nash- 
ville.    July,  August. 

P.  Scribnerianum  Nash.  P.  pauciflorum.  A.  Gray.  Dry, 
siliceous  grounds.     July,  August. 

P.  laxiflorum  Lam.  Highlands,  damp,  rich  woods.  Inly, 
August. 

P.  nitidum  Lam.  Siliceous  soils,  vicinity  <>f  Nashville  and 
Knoxville.     Scribner. 

P.  dichotomum  L.     Thickets.     O.  S.     May- July. 

P.  barbulatum  Michx.  With  the  former.  (  >.  S.  June- 
August. 

P.  viscidum  Ell.  O.  S.  .Madison  County.  S.  M.  Bain. 
Hiwassee  Valley.     A.  Ruth.     June. 

P.  scoparium  Lam.  (var.)  genuinum.  W.  Tenn.  S.  M. 
Bain.     Cedar  glades.     July. 

P.  scoparium  minus  Scribner.     Hilltops  around  Nashville. 

P.    depauperatum    Miihl.      Drv,    siliceous   soil.      M.     ! 
July. 

P.  pubescens  Lam.  P.  lanuginosum  Ell.  In  the  cedar 
glades.     June-September. 

P.  angustifolium  Ell.  P.  consanguineum  S.  Watson. 
Henderson,  W.  Tenn.     S.  M.  Bain.     Knoxville.     Scribner. 

P.  proliferum  Lam.  P.  genieulatum  Miihl.  Ditches  and 
ponds.     O.  S.     July-September. 

P.  capillare  L.  Witch  grass.  Sandy,  activated  ground. 
O.  S.     July-September. 

*P.  capiilare  Gattingeri  Nash.  P.  ca  ullare  var.  compestre 
Gattinger  (in  "Tennessee  Flora,"  firs'  edition).  Common  in 
the  cedar  glades.     September. 

*Panicum  capillare   L..   var.   Bexile     tattinger,   is   eith<  tin1 

forms  of  P.  capillare,   or  an  annual    variety   of  P.   autumnal     R 
which    it    resembles    greatly,    especially    in    smootbness    and    form    of 
spikelets.     It  is  very  smooth  above,   with  lome  hairs  <>n  the  lower  part 
of   culm   and   leaves;    culm    \  Lder,    panicle    rather    small,    and 

branches  not  spreading  unt;;  ,',,,,  ma{ar«  ipikelete  are  ready  i«»  drop 
off;  leaves  linear,  gradiyaJ]v  attenuate,  <>f  ■  p:i1''  preen  color'  u  ;,1,oun,,s 
in  the  cedar  glades,  and  is  rarely  seen  out?i(ie  of  tn,MU 


88  Tennessee  Flora. 

P.  flexile  (Gattinger)  Scribner.  Cedar  glades;  very  com- 
mon.    July-September.     Characteristic  of  the  glades. 

P.  minus  (Muhl.)  Nash.  P.  capillare  var.  minimum  En- 
gelm  in  litt.  Loamy  fields,  near  Rising  Sun  Bluff,  below 
Nashville. 

P.  verrucosum  Miihl.  Bogs  along  Cumberland  River. 
Mitchellville.     July. 

SYNTHERISMA  Walt.     (Digitaria  Scop.) 

Syntherisma  sanguinalis  (L.)  Nash.  Digitaria  sanguinalis 
Scop.  Crop  grass.  Yields  a  spontaneous  crop  of  hay  in  corn- 
fields at  the  close  of  the  growing  season.  September,  Octo- 
ber. 

S.  linearis  (Krock.)  Nash.  (Panicum  glabrum  Gaud.) 
Pastures  and  waste  grounds.  A  very  valuable  pasture  grass, 
maturing  later  than  the  forrner.  Middle  Tennessee.  Sep- 
tember, October. 

S.  filiformis  (L.)  Nash.  Digitaria  filiformis  Miihl.  Pan- 
icum filiforme  L.     In  siliceous  soil.     O.  S.     July-September. 

S.  serotina  Walter.  P.  serotinum  Trin.  Glades.  Septem- 
ber. 

IXOPHORUS   Schlecht.     (Setaria  Beauv.) 

Ixophorus  verticillatus  (L.)  Nash.  Setaria  verticillata 
B^auv.  Fox  tail  grass.  Sparingly  found  in  fields  and  gar- 
de is.     Introduced.     July-September. 

1.  glaucus  (L.)  Nash.  Setaria  glauca  Beauv.  Yellow  fox 
tail.  Pigeon  grass.  Introduced  and  now  ubiquitous.  July- 
September. 

I.  glauc  js-laevigatus  Chapm.  Cedar  glades ;  very  common. 
July-September. 

I.  viridis  (L.)  Nash.  Setaria  viridis  Beauv.  Introduced 
and  now  ubiqui.  "us.     July-September. 

I.  Italicus  (L.)  Nash.  Setaria  Italica  R.  &  S.  Hunga- 
rian grass;  Italian  n  :llet.  In  cultivation  and  frequently  es- 
caped into  waste  places      July-September. 

I.  Germanicus  (Beau.  )  Nash.  Setaria  Germanica  Beauv. 
German  millet.  Both  millets  give  important  hay  crops.  July- 
September. 

CENCHRUS  L. 

Cenchrus  tribuloides  L.  Burga§£-  On  the  sandy  ^ats 
along  Mississipppi  River.  ypreqUently' intermixed  with  equis- 
etum  robustum.     Augugf 


Tennessee   Flora. 

PENNISETUM  Pers. 

Pennisetum  typhoideum  Rich.      Pearl   millet.      [ntrodu 

from  the  Orient;  it  is  sometimes  cultivated. 

ORYCE.E. 
ZIZANIA   L. 

Zizania    aquatica    L.     Indian    rice.      Near    Humboldt,    W. 

Tenn.     Guthrie,  Ky. 

ORYZA  L. 

Oryza  sativa  L.  Rice.  A  variety  called  "  upland  rice  "  is 
here  and  there  cultivated  on  a  small  scale  in  W.  Tenn.     M. 

HOMALOCENCHRUS  Meig.     (Leersia  Swartz.) 

Homalocenchrus  Virginicus  Britt.  Leersia  Virginica  Willd. 
White  grass;  shady  an8d  damp  locations.  O.  S.  July-Sep- 
tember. 

H.  oryzoides    (L.)    Poll.      In  swamps  and   along  streams. 

O.  S.     July-September. 

H.  lenticularis  (Michx.)  Scribn.  Catch-flv  grass.  W.  Tenn. 
S.  M.  Bain. 

PHALARIDE^. 
PHALARIS  L. 
Phalaris  Canadensis   L.     Canary   grass.     Food   for  canary 
birds,  whence  it  frequently  escapes. 

Ph.  arundinacea  L.     Reed  grass.     Introduced,  witli  the  next. 
Ph.  arundinacea  picta  L.      The  ribbon  grass  is  frequently 
found  in  gardens  and  survives  in  abandoned  garden  plots,  but 
the  genuine  Ph.  arundinacea  I  have  never  seen  in  Tenn 
spontaneous. 

ANTHOXANTHUM  L. 

Anthoxanthum  odoratum  L.     Sweet   vernal  grass,     [s  fre- 
quently found  in  meadows  in  E.  Tenn..  in   which  part  of  the 
State  it  seems  to  thrive  best.     Introduced   with   grass 
from  Europe,  it  imparts  the  hay  a  sweet  flavOr. 

agrostidrt:. 
aristida  l. 

Aristida  dichotoma  Michx.  Poverty  grass.  In  poor,  sandy 
soils.     O.  S.     September,  October. 

A.  gracilis  Ell.  In  glades  and  sterile  soils,  with  the  former. 
September,  October. 


40  Tennessee  Flora. 

A.  ramosissima  Engelm.  Sandy  soil,  Humboldt,  W.  Term. 
July-September. 

A.  purpurascens  Poir.     Paradise  Ridge,  Robertson  County. 

Jul>'-  ,    ~  «. 

A.  oligantha  Michx.     Dry,  gravelly  soils.     O.  S. 

STIPA  L. 

Stipa  avenacea  L.  Black  oat  grass.  Charleston,  Bradley 
County;  summit  of  Lookout  Mountain.     May,  June. 

MUHLENBERGIA  Schr. 

Muhlenbergia  sobolifera  (Miihl.)  Trin.  Rocky  woodlands, 
O.  S.     August,  September. 

M.  Mexicana  (L.)  Trin.  Thickets  along  water  courses. 
O.  S.     August,  September. 

M.  sylvatica  Torr.  Damp  woodlands.  O.  S.  September,. 
October. 

M.  tenuiflora  (Willd.)  M.  Willdenovii  Trin.  Woodlands 
of  Middle  Tennessee  to  the  summits  of  the  Smoky  Mountains. 
July-September. 

M.  diffusa  Schreb.  Nimble  Will,  Dropseed  grass.  Pas- 
tures and  grass  plots ;  very  common,  and  not  liked  by  cattle. 
September,  October. 

M.  capillaris  (Lam.)  Trin.  A  very  graceful  grass,  with 
light  purple  panicle.  In  a  cedar  glade  at  Lavergne.  July, 
August. 

BRACHYELYTRUM  Beauv. 

Brachyelytrum  erectum  (Schreb.)  Beauv.  B.  aristatum  R. 
&  S.     Dry  woodlands.     O.  S.     July-September. 

PHLEUM  L. 

Phleum  pratense  L.  Timothy.  Gives  the  best  hay  crop  in 
the  State.     July,  July. 

ALOPECURUS  L. 

Alopecurus  pratensis  L.  Meadow  foxtail.  In  meadows ; 
introduced  with  other  grass  seeds.     Scarce.     June,  July. 

A.  geniculatus  L.     Wet  places.     May-July. 

A.  geniculatus  aristulatus  Torr.  In  similar  localities. 
Charlotte  Pike,  near  West  Nashville  ("  New  Town  ").     June. 

SPOROBOLUS  R.  Br. 

Sporobolus  asper  (Michx.)  Kunth.  Cedar  glades  at  La- 
vergne ;  Knoxville.     Scribn.     October. 


Tennessee   Flora.  u 

S.  vaginaeflorus  (Torr.)  Wood.  S.  minor  Vasey.  Poverty 
grass.    Sterile,  rocky  places;  very  common.    August-October. 

S.  neglectus  Nash.     S.  vaginaeflorus  Vasey.     With  th< 
mer.     September,  October. 

S.  Indicus  (L.)  R.  Br.  Sweet  grass.  Sandy  soils  in  the 
Cumberland  Mts.  and  in  the  oak  barrens.     June-September. 

CINNA  L. 

Cinna  arundinacea  L.  Indian  reed  grass.  Wet,  rich  wood- 
lands. O.  S.  A  form  smaller  throughout  is  found  on  Paradise 
Ridge.     August,  September. 

C.  pendula  Trin.     On  Roane  Mountain.     L.  F.  Scribner. 

AGROSTIS  L. 

Agrostis  alba  L.  Redtop,  herd's  grass.  (  me  of  the  princi- 
pal meadow  grasses.  Sometimes  extensively  Stoloniferous. 
July,  August. 

A.  exarata  Trin.     O.  S.     July-September. 

A.  Elliotiana  Schult.  A.  arachnoides  Ell.  Dry.  siliceous 
ground.     O.  S.     May-July. 

A.  canina  L.     White  Cliff  Springs,  Monroe  County.     July. 

A.  rubra  L.  A.  rupestris  Chapm.  Summit  of  Roane  Moun- 
tain.    July. 

A.  intermedia  Scribn.     Common  in   damp  thicket-.     O.   S. 

A.  perennans  Tuckerm.  Open  woodlands.  O.  S.  July- 
September. 

A.  Novae  -  Angliae  Tuckerm.  Along  mountain  streams, 
E.  Tenn.     Scribn. 

A.  hyemalis  (Walt.)  B.  S.  P.  A.  scabra  Willd.  In  dry  or 
wet  places.     A  noxious  weed,  but  not  frequent.     July. 

A.  altissima  Walt.  A.  elata  Trin.  Sandy  soil,  vicinity  of 
Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

CALAMAGROSTIS  Adans. 

Calamagrostis  Canadensis  Beauv.     Blue  joint.     Roam-   Mi 
Checkering. 

C.  cinnoides  (Miihl.)  Scribn.  C.  Xuttalliana  Steudel. 
Frog  Mts.  and  Cumberland  Mts.     July.  August. 

avenace.t:. 

HOLCUS  L. 

Holcus  lanatus  L.     Velvet  grass.     Naturalized  in  E.  Tenn. 

especially  frequent  in  the  mountains,  in  meadows  a-  well 
open  grounds.     June.  July. 


42  Tennessee  Flora. 

DESCHAMPSIA  Beauv. 

Deschampsia  flexuosa  (L.)  Trin.  Mts.  of  E.  Term.,  Ocoee 
Valley,  and  Lookout  Mt.     July. 

TRISETUM  Pers. 

Trisetum  subspicatum  (L.)  Beauv.  var.  molle  Gray.  Sum- 
mit of  Roane  Mountain.     F.  L.  Scribner.     July. 

T.  Pennsylvanicum  (L.)  Beauv.  T.  palustre  Torrey. 
Moist  places  throughout  the  Alleghanies.     June,  July. 

AVENA  L. 

Avena  sativa  L.  Oat.  Cultivated ;  occurs  frequently  self- 
sown  in  fields  and  on  roadsides.     July. 

Our  common  oats  are,  perhaps,  derived  from  the  wild  oats 
of  Europe.  Avena  fatna  L.  a  variable  species,  through  culti- 
vation. There  are  distinguished  two  classes — "  panicle  oats," 
with  widely-spreading  panicles,  and  "  banner  oats,"  with  pan- 
icles contracted  and  one-sided.  Both  of  them  vary  again  in 
the  envelopment  of  the  grain,  being  either  "  chaffy  "  or  naked 
fruited.  Oats  are  also  distinguished  by  the  color  of  the  grain, 
as  "  white  oats  "  or  "  black  oats."  Its  cultivation  reaches  back 
into  prehistoric  times. 

ARRHENATHERUM   Beauv. 

Arrhenatherum  elatius  (L.)  Beauv.  Oat  grass.  Old  City 
Cemeterv  and   in   fence   rows,  vicinity   of   Nashville.      June, 

July- 

DANTHONIA  D.  C. 

Danthonia  spicata  (L.)  Beauv.  Wild  oat  grass.  Hilltops 
around  Nashville,  in  siliceous  soils.     June. 

D.  sericea  Nutt.  Cedar  glades,  Edgefield  Junction ;  dry 
soils  in  the  ridges  of  E,  Tenn.     May,  June. 

D.  compressa  Aust.  Throughout  the  higher  mountains  of 
E.  Tenn.     July. 

CHLORIDES. 
CAPRIOLA  Adans. 

Capriola  Dactylon  (L.)  Kuntze.  Cynodon  Dactylon  Pers. 
Bermuda  Grass.  Does  not  mature  seed  and  has  to  be  prop- 
agated by  cuttings.  Along  river  banks  and  in  grass  plots, 
where  it  soon  suppresses  the  other  grasses.     July-September. 

SPARTINA  Schreb. 

Spartina  cynosuroides  (L.)  Willd.  Marsh  grass.  Browns- 
ville, W.  Tenn.     September,  October. 


Tennessee  Flora. 

CHLORIS  Sw. 

Chloris  verticillata  Xmt.  As  a  weed  in  the  garden  of  f. 
Rath,  in  Cleveland.     May-July. 

GYMNOPOGON   Beauv. 

Gymnopogon    racemosus    Beauv.      Barrens   at    Tullahoma. 

July. 

BOUTELOUA  Lag. 
Bouteloua  curtipendula  (Michx.)  Torr.     B.  racemosa   Lag. 

Mesguite    grass;    Grama    grass.      Cedar    glades,    Lavergne. 
July. 

ELEUSINE  Gaert. 
Eleusine  Indica  (L.)  Gaertn.     Crab  grass.     Introduced,  and 
noAv  in  every  waste  place.     O.  S.     June-September. 

LEPTOCHLOA  Beauv. 

Leptochloa    mucronata     (Michx.)     Kunth.      In    cultivated 

grounds.     O.  S.     July-September. 

festucej:. 
gynerium  h.  b.  k. 

Gynerium  argenteum  Nees.  The  Pampas  grass  is  frequent- 
ly cultivated  for  ornament,  but  is  too  tender  to  survive  the 
winter  in  open  grounds. 

ARUNDO  L. 

Arundo  Donax  L.  Reed.  Cultivated  for  ornament,  espe- 
cially the  white-banded  var.  A.  Donax  variegata.  The  com- 
mon variety  grows  very  tall  (fifteen  feet  high),  and  both  ma- 
ture seed,  but  do  not  spread  beyond  cultivation.  July-Sep- 
tember. 

SIEGLINGIA  Bernh.      (Triodia   R.   Br.) 

Sieglingia  sessleroides  (Michx.)  Scribner.     (Triodea  cu] 
J.  F.  Jacq.)     O.  S.     In  all  soils.     September,  October. 

ERAGROSTIS  Beauv. 

Eragrostis  capillaris  (L.)  Nees.  Frequent  in  E.  Tenn, 
Scribn. 

Eragrostis  major  Host.  E.  poaeoides  var.  megastrachya 
Gray.  In  cultivated  grounds.  O.  S.  August,  September. 
Introduced. 

E.  Brownei  Kunth.      Low  and   decumbent.       Differs   from 


44  Tennessee   Flora. 

Eragrostis  minor,  and  seems  to  be  indigenous  to  the  cedar 
barrens.     July-September. 

E.  Frankii  Steud.  Abundant  in  the  cedar  glades ;  unpleas- 
ant smelling.     July,  August. 

E.  pilosa  (L.)  Beauv.  Naturalized  from  Europe.  Fre- 
quent around  Knoxville.     F.  L.  Scribn. 

E.  Purshii  Schrad.  Waste  grounds,  streets  of  Nashville. 
August,  September. 

E.  pectinacea  (Michx.)  Steudel.  E.  pectinacea  var.  specta- 
bilis  A.  Gray.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     August,  September. 

E.  refracta  (Miihl.)  Scribn.  Dry  uplands  and  cedar  glades. 
M.  Tenn.     July-September. 

E.  secundiflora  Presl.  E.  oxylepis  Torr.  Vicinity  of  Mem- 
phis.    Dr.  G.  Egeling. 

E.  hypnoides  (Lam.)  B.  S.  P.  E.  reptans  Nees.  Wet, 
sandy  soils  and  river  banks.     O.  S.     Aueust,  September. 

EATONIA  Raf. 

Eatonia  obtusata  (Michx.)  A.  Gray.  Hills  on  Cumberland 
River,  below  Nashville.     May. 

E.  Pennsylvanica  Gray.  Copses  around  Nashville ;  com- 
mon.    May,  June. 

E.  filiformis  Vasey.  Dry  hills,  Chester  County.  S.  M. 
Bain. 

E.  Dudleyi  Vasey.     Copses.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

MELICA  L. 

Melica  mutica  Walt.  Shaded  hillsides  and  ravines.  O.  S. 
May,  June. 

KORYCARPUS  Zea.     (Diarrhena  Beauv.) 

Korycarpus  diandrus  (Michx.)  Kuntze.  Diarrhena  Amer- 
icana Beauv.     Rich  soil;  not  very  frequent.     July-September. 

UNIOLA  L. 

Uniota  latifolia  Michx.  Creek  and  river  bottoms.  O.  S. 
July-August. 

U.  laxa  (L.)  B.  S.  P.  U.  gracilis  Michx.  In  thickets.  E. 
Tenn.     F.  L.  Scribn.     Nashville.     July,  August. 

U.  longifolia  Scrib.  Perhaps  a  variety  of  the  former.  Tul- 
lahoma,  Hiwassee  Valley.     A.  Ruth. 

DACTYLIS  L. 

Dactylis  glomerata  L.      Orchard  grass.      Growing  in  tus- 


Tennessee    Flora. 

socks,  it  is  not  adapted   for  meadow  culture  by  itself;  fully 

naturalized.     June-October. 

CYNOSURUS  L. 

Cynosurus  cristatus   L.     Has  been   recently   introduced  to 

cultivation  in  this  State,  and  is  naturalized  in  Canada  and  the 
Eastern  States. 

POA  L. 

Poa  annua  L.     Six  weeks'  grass.     Introduced,  and  n<.. 
erywhere  abundant;  annual.     March-<  October, 

P.  Chapmanniana  Scribn.  P.  cristata  Cbapm.  Spring} 
places,  West  Nashville  ("New  Town"),  mar  Nashville; 
Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

P.  compressa  L.  English  blue  grass.  Introduced  and 
thoroughly  naturalized.      May-July. 

P.  pratensis  L.  Kentucky  blue  grass.  Makes  the  besl 
meadows  in  calcareous  soils.     June-August. 

P.  trivialis  L.  Occurs  very  rarely  in  this  State.  Intro- 
duced. 

P.  autumnalis  Miihl.     P.  flexuosa  Miihl.     Moist  thickets 
Paradise  Ridge,  Davidson  County.     June.  July. 

P.  sylvestris  Gray.     Woodlands.     O.  S.     May. 

P.  alsodes  Gray.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     F.  L.  Scribn. 

P.  Wolfii  Scrib.     Cedar  glades  at  Lavergne.     May,  June. 

P.  brevifolia  Miihl.  Hillsides  around  Nashville.  Knox- 
ville.    A.  Ruth.     April,  May. 

P.  debilis  Torr.  On  White  Top  Mountain.  West  Virginia, 
J.  K.  Small.     Smoky  Mts.,  E.  Tenn. 

PANICULARIA  Fabr.     (Glyceria  R.  Br.) 

Panicularia  elongata  (Willd.)  Kuntze.  Glyceria  elongata 
Trin.     Roane  Mountain.     F.  L.  Scribn. 

P.  nervata  (WTilld.)  Kuntze.  Gylceria  nervata  Trin.  Wei 
meadows ;  common.     O.  S.     June-September. 

P.  acutiflora  (Torr.)  Kuntze.  Glyceria  acutiflora  Kuntze. 
One-mile  Pond,  near  old  waterworks,  Nashville.     June. 

P.  pallida  (Torr.)  Kuntze.  Edge  of  a  millpond  in  Duck- 
town;     July. 

P.  Americana  (Torr.)  McMillan.  Glyceria  aquatica  Smith. 
Bell's  Bend,  Davidson  County;  in  low  ground-  near  the  Cum- 
berland River.     June,  July. 

P.  fluitans  (L.)  Kuntze.  In  swamps  and  muddy  places. 
O.  S. 

FESTUCA  L. 

Festuca  octoflora  Walt.     F.   tenella   Willd.     Hilltops, 

ceous  ground,  M.  Tenn. ;  common.     April.  May. 


46  Tennessee  Flora. 

F.  rubra  L.  var.  glauceseens  Haeck.  Rocky  banks  of  Cum- 
berland River,  near  Nashville.     June,  July. 

F.  Myuros  L.  Nashville,  near  lunatic  asylum,  introduced. 
Knoxville.     Scribn. 

F.  ovina  L.  Sparingly  occurring ;  introduced.  Knoxville. 
F.  L.  Scribner. 

F.  elatior  L.  Tall  Fescue  grass ;  naturalized.  The  var. 
arundinarea  Schreb.  is  found  scatteringly  in  the  vicinity  of 
Nashville,  the  old  Akin  place.     June,  July. 

F.  Shortii  Kunth.  Collected  in  the  barrens  near  Tullaho- 
ma.     It  greatly  resembles  F.  elatior. 

BROMUS  L. 

Bromus  ciliatus  L.  B.  purgans  L.  Woods  and  thickets. 
O.  S.  July,  August.  The.  variety  purgans  Gray  differs  but 
little  in  pubescence. 

B.  sterilis  L.  Old  field  on  Granny  White  Pike,  near  Nash- 
ville.    June. 

B.  hordaceus  L.  B.  mollis  L.  Soft  chess.  In  fields  and 
waste  places.     O.  S.     June. 

B.  secalinus  L.  Cheat,  chess.  A  weed  in  grain  fields.  O. 
S.     June-August. 

B.  racemosus  L.     Fields  and  pastures.     O.  S.     June,  July. 

B.  unioloides  H.  B.  K.  Recently  introduced  in  this  State 
in  cultivation,  and  a  plot  of  it  was  planted  in  the  Centennial 
grounds.     July. 

HORDEACE^. 
LOLIUM  L. 

L.  temulentum  L.  Darnel.  Waste  grounds.  O.  S.  June- 
August. 

L.  Italicum  A.  Br.  Introduced  and  sparingly  cultivated. 
A  plot  of  it  was  cultivated  at  Centennial  grounds. 

AGROPYRUM  J.  Gaertner. 

Agropyrum  repens  (L.)  Beauv.  Couch  grass.  An  ex- 
tremely troublesome  weed  in  fields  and  gardens,  but  not  fre- 
quent in  this  latitude.     Introduced.     June-September.     M. 

A.  caninum  L.  Occasionally  introduced  with  field  and  gar- 
den seeds.     July,  August. 

SECALE  L. 

Secale  cereale  L.  Rye.  This  State  is  in  the  southern  limit 
of  profitable  culture  of  this  cereal.  Still  found  spontaneously 
growing  in  Southern  Russia,  its  original  home  is  apparently 


Tennessee   Flora.  \~ 

in  the  Caucasus  and  adjoining  territories.     First  ve 
its  culture  are  found  in  the  Swiss  lake  dwellings.     M. 

TRITICUM  L. 

Triticum  sativum  L.  Wheat.  The  origin  of  culture  of  the 
wheat  in  several  varieties  readies  hack  into  prehistoric  times. 
Grains  are  found  embedded  in  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  tiles. 
Indian  and  Hindoo  myths  relate  its  early  use.  as  do  likewise 
the  sacred  writings  of  the  Hebrews.  In  our  time  we  distin- 
guish the  following  varieties,  some  of  which  are  extensively 
cultivated  in  this  State : 

T.  sativum  hibernum  L.     Winter  wheat. 

T.  sativum  aestivum  L.     Summer  wheat. 

T.  sativum  nudum  L.     Unbearded  wheat. 

T.  sativum  album  L.     White  wheat. 

T.  sativum  rubrum  L.     Red  or  Mediterranean  wheat. 

The  following  species  and  varieties  are  less  common  in  cul- 
tivation and  have,  perhaps,  never  been  tried  in  Tenness* 

T.  turgidum  and  T.  compositum  L.  Turgid  wheat.  The 
latter  is  only  a  subvariety.  The  spikes  of  T.  compositum  are 
compound  or  ramified.  It  yields  very  heavy  crops,  and  is 
best  adapted  to  warm  climates. 

T.  durum  Desf.  T.  rubrum  Kunth.  Hard  or  horny  wheat. 
Cultivated  principally  in  Northern  Africa  and  in  Southern 
Spain. 

T.  Polonicum  L.     Grown  mainly  in  Russia. 

T.  Spelta  (L.)  Spelt.  This  species  is  extensively  culti- 
vated in  Southern  Germany,  Hungaria.  and  Russia  in  the  fer- 
tile heavy  red  clay  soils  of  these  countries.  It  forms  very 
large  and  heavy  grains  which  adhere  to  the  chaff  trout  which 
they  have  to  be  separated  like  the  chaff  of  the  rice. 

T.  dicoccum  Schrank.  Two-grained  wheat;  adapted  to 
high  altitudes,  resisting  severe  cold. 

T.  monococcum  L.  Single-grained  wheat,  reserved  for  the 
poorest  rocky  soils  which  would  not  support  other  varieties. 

HORDEUM  L. 

Hordeum  nodosum  L.  H.  pratense  Huds.  Wild  barley. 
Dry,  rocky  places.     O.  S.     May.  June. 

Hordeum  pusillum  Nutt.  Similar  localities  like  the  former. 
O.  S.     May,  June. 

H.  distichum   L.     Two-rowed   barley.     Long-eared   barley. 
Heads  flattened  and  two-ranked,  husk  attached  to  the  gi 
Cult. 

H.  distichum  Zeocriton  L.  Battle-door  barley,  a  variety  ol 
the  former.     Cult. 


48  Tennessee  Flora. 

H.  vulgare  L.     Grains  arranged  in  four  rows.     Cult. 

H.  hexastichum  L.     Grains  arranged  in  six  rows.     Cult. 

The  latter  four  species  are  found  in  cultivation  only.  They 
have  ceased  to  mature  germinating  seed  outside  of  cultiva- 
tion in  our  latitude.  Hordeum  distichum  is  still  found  in  a 
wild  state  in  Western  Asia  and  in  Arabia  Petraea ;  Hordeum 
hexastichum  we  know  to  have  been  cultivated  in  the  remotest 
ages  of  which  we  possess  records  in  Egypt  and  the  Syro-Baby- 
lonian  countries. 

ELYMUS  L. 

Elymus  striatus  Willd.     Wild  rye.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

E.  striatus  villosus  Gray.  In  the  barrens  with  the  former. 
O.  S.     July,  August. 

E.  Canadensis  L.     O.  S.     July. 

E.  Canadensis  glaucifolius  Gray.  In  the  cedar  glades. 
July-September. 

E.  Virginicus  L.     Very  common.     O.  S.     July. 

HYSTRIX  Moench. 

Hystrix  Hystrix  (L.)  Millsp.  Bottle  brush  gr*ass.  As- 
prella  Hystrix  Willd.     In  rocky  ground.     O.  S.     June,  July. 

BAMBUSE^E. 
ARUNDINARIA  Michx. 

Arundinaria  gigantea  Chapm.  Cane.  Forming  the  cane- 
brakes  of  all  the  Southern  water  courses.     May- July. 

A.  tecta  Miihl,  Small  cane.  In  low  and  high  lands. 
Summit  of  Lookout  Mt.  O.  S.  The  cain  reaches  maturity 
and  dies  off  when  the  shoots  attain  io°-i5°  height,  and  bears 
seeds  from  auxiliary  branches.  A.  tecta  is  merely  a  youn 
state  throwing  flowering  shoots  immediately  from  the  roots. 


& 


CYPERACE.E  J.  St.  Hill. 
CYPERUS  L. 

Cyperus  flavescens  L.  In  marshy  ground.  O.  S.  August- 
October. 

C.  diandrus  Torr.     With  the  former.     July-September. 

C.  rivularis  Kunth.  C.  castaneus  Torr.  In  wet  soil.  O.  S. 
August-October. 

C.  inflexus  Miihl.  C.  aristatus  Rottb.  Glades  and  sandy 
river  banks.     O.  S.     July. 

C.  pseudovegetus  Steud.  C.  calcaratus  Nees.  Damp  soils. 
O.  S.     July. 

C.  acuminatus  Torr  and  Hook.     Cedar  glades.     Lavergne. 

My- 


Tennessee   Flora.  ig 

C.  virens  Michx.     Brownsville.     August. 

C.  rotundus  L.     C.  Hydra   Michx.     Old  horticultural 
den  in  North  Nashville.     July. 

C.  esculentus  L.  C.  phymatodes  Miilil.  Yellow  nut  grass. 
A  pest  in  cultivated  grounds.     O.  S.     August,  Septemb 

C.  esculentus  angustispicatus  Britt.  A  variety  very  com- 
mon about  Nashville. 

C.  erythrorhizos  Miilil.  River  swamps.  O.  S.  August, 
September. 

C.   Hallei  Torr.     Reported   from  Tennessee   in    [llustr; 
Flora. 

C.  speciosus  Wahl.  C.  Michauxianus  Torr.  River  banks 
and  pools.     Nashville.     September. 

C.  strigosus  L.    The  most  frequent  species.    O.  S.    Am 
October. 

C.  strigosus  capitatus  Bcekl. 

C.  strigosus  compositus  Britt. 

C.  strigosus  robustior  Kunth. 

C.  strigosus  elongatus  Britt.  All  these  varieties  arc  found 
promiscuously  in  the  same  range. 

C.  refractus  Engelm.  On  dry,  rocky  uplands.  Nashville. 
August,  September. 

C.  retrofractus  (L.)  Torr.  Hollow  Rock,  W.  Tenn.  Au- 
gust, September. 

C.  Lancastriensis  Port.  Dry  uplands.  Old  Cemetery,  at 
Nashville.     August,  September. 

C.  ovularis  Torr  inch  yar.  robustus  Boekl.  and  var.  sphericus 
Boekl.     Frequent  in  the  glades  of  M.  Tenn. 

C.  filiculmis  Vahl.  Dry  uplands,  vicinity  of  Nashville,  and 
O.  S.     June-September. 

C.  echinatus  (Ell.)  Wood.  C.  Baldwinii  Torr.  Knoxville. 
A.  Ruth. 

KYLLINGIA  Rottb. 

Kyllingia  pumila  Michx.  Miry  places.  O.  S.  July.  Au- 
gust. 

DULICHIUM  L.  C.  Richard. 

Dulichium  arundinaceum  (L.)  Britton.  Swamps  along 
Cumberland  and  Tennessee  Rivers.     August-October. 

ELEOCHARIS  R.  Br. 

Eleocharis  mutata  (L.)  R.  &  S.  E.  quadrangulata  K.  &  S 
Bogs  along  Cumberland  River.     July-September. 

E.  ovata  (Roth.)  R.  &  S.     Bogs.     O.  S.     July-September. 

E.  Engelmanni  Steud.  E.  ovata  var.  Engelmanni  Britt. 
Damp  soil  in  the  barrens.     July. 


50  Tennessee  Flora. 

E.  palustris  (L.)  R.  &  S.  Ponds  and  swamps.  O.  S.  July- 
September. 

E.  acicularis  R.  Br.     Wet  lands.     O.  S.     July-September. 

E.  tenuis  (Willd.)  Schultes.  Barrens  and  highlands.  O.  S. 
July,  August. 

E.  acuminata  (Miihl.)  Nees.  E.  compressa  Sull.  Frequent 
along  water  courses.     O.  S.     June-August. 

DICHROMENA  Michx. 

Dichromena  latifolia  Baldw.  Barrens  at  Tullahoma.  June- 
August. 

FIMBRISTYLIS  Wahl. 

Fimbristylis  laxa  Wahl.  Cedar  glades,  Lavergne.  July- 
September. 

F.  autumnalis  (L.)  R.  &  S.  Bogs  and  ditches.  O.  S.  June- 
September. 

STENOPHYLLUS  Raf. 

Stenophyllus  capillaris  (L.)  Britton.  Fimbristylis  capil- 
lars A.  Gray.  Sandy  soil  in  the  Cumberland  Mts.  June, 
July. 

SCIRPUS  L. 

Scirpus  debilis  Pursh.  Bogs,  W.  Tenn.  August,  Septem- 
ber. 

S.  lacustris  L.  Bulrush.  In  a  marshy  meadow  near  rail- 
road station,  Cleveland,  E.  Tenn.     June-September. 

S.  fluviatilis  (Torr.)  A.  Gray.  Bogs  along  Ocoee  River,  E. 
Tenn.     June-September. 

S.  atrovirens  Miihl.     In  bogs.     O.  S.     June-August. 

S.  polyphyllus  Vahl.     O.  S.     June,  July. 

S.  caespitosus  L.     Roane  Mt.,  Chickering. 

S.  sylvaticus  L.  Waters  of  Holston  River.  J.  K.  Small. 
June-August. 

S.  carinatus  (IT.  &  A.)  Britton.  Madison,  W.  Tenn.  S.  M. 
Bain.     June-August. 

S.  divaricatus  Ell.  Jackson,  W.  Tenn.  S.  M.  Bain.  June- 
August. 

S.  lineatus  Michx.  Eriophorum  lineatum  Benth.  &  Hooker. 
Wet  places  in  the  glades.     June-September. 

S.  cyperinus  (L.)  Kunth.  Eriophorum  cyperinum  L.  In 
swamps.     O.  S.     August,  September. 

ERIOPHORUM  L. 

Eriophorum  polystachium  L.  Cotton  grass.  Mountain 
"bogs.     E.  Tenn.     July. 


Tennessee   Flora.  :.  i 

^  E.  Virginicum  L.     In  bogs  of  the  Cumberland  Mts.     June- 
September. 

HEMICARPHA  Nees  &  Am. 

Hemicarpha    micrantha    (Vahl.)     Britton.      Bottom    lands 

along  Cumberland  River,  near  Nashville.     July,  August. 

RHYNCHOSPORA  Vahl. 

Rhynchospora  alba  Vahl.     Bogs  in  the  Cumberland    Mts. 

and  Alleghanies.     July. 

Rh.  glomerata   (L.)   Vahl.     Bon  Air.  Tullahoma,   Lookout 

Mt.     August. 

Rh.  fusca  (L.)  R.  &  S.     Bogs  in  the  Cumberland  Mts.     July. 
August. 

Rh.  cymosa  Ell.     Bogs.     O.  S.     July.  August. 

Rh.  corniculata   (Lam.)   A.   Gray.     Swamp-.     I  ».   S.     July- 
September. 

SCLERIA  Berg. 

Scleria    triglomerata    Michx.      Lookout    Mt., -Tullahoma. 
July. 

Sc.  pauciflora  Miihl.     Dry  glades,  Lavergne.     June-Septem- 
ber. 

CAREX  Ruppius  Sedge. 

Carex  follicularis  L.     Mts.  of  S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small. 

C.  intumescens  Rudge.     Swamps  along  Cumberland  River. 
E.  Tenn.     August,  September. 

C.  Asa  Grayi  Bailey.     Swamps  in  W.  Tenn.     September. 

C.  lupuliformis  Sartw.     C.  lupulina  var.  polystachya  Schw. 
&  Torr.     Swamps.     O.  S.     August. 

C.  bullata  Schku.     Swamps.     O.  S.     June- August. 

C.  lurida  Wahl.     C.  tentaculata  Miihl.     Edgefield  Junction, 
South  Tunnel.     August,  September. 

C.  Baileyi   Britt.      C.  tentaculata  var.  gracilis   Booth.      In 
Tennessee  (fide)  Illustrated  Flora. 

C.  hystricina  Miihl.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     June-Augi 

C.  Frankii  Kunth.      C.  stenolepis  Torr.      Swamp-. 
June-September. 

C.  squamosa  L.     Bogs.     O.  S.     June-September. 

C.    Shortiana   Dewey.      Tunnel    Hill.    Nashville,    E.    Tenn. 
Mav-Julv. 

C.  scabrata  Schwein.     E.  Tenn.     Curtiss.      May.  June. 
June. 

C.  vestita  Willd.     O.  S.     June.  July. 

C.  torta  Boott.     S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small.     E.  Tenn.    A.  Ruth. 


52  Tennessee  Flora. 

C.  prasina  Wahl.  C.  miliacea  Miihl.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn. 
May- July. 

C.  crinita  Lam.     Cumberland  Mts.,  Whiteside.     June,  July. 

C.  virescens  Miihl.  Cumberland  Mts.,  valley  of  E.  Tenn. 
June,  July. 

C.  Caroliniana  Schwein.  Hiwassee  Valley.  Kearney. 
May- July. 

C.  gracillima  Schwein.  Bogs.  Jones'  Bend,  Davidson 
County,     May-July. 

C.  aestivalis  M.  A.  Curtis.  Clingman  Dome,  summit.  Roane 
Mt.,  Chickering.     June-August. 

C.  oxylepis  Torr.  &  Hook.  Illustrated  Flora  for  Tennessee. 
May,  June. 

C.  Davisii  Schwein.  &  Torr.     Bogs,  near  Nashville.     May- 

July. 

C.  triceps  Michx.     Glades  of  M.  Tenn.     April-August. 

C.  tenuis  Rudge.  C.  debilis  Michx.  Bogs.  Summer 
County.     June,  July. 

C.  amphibola  Steud.  C.  grisea  var.  angustifolia  Boott. 
O.  S.     April-June. 

C.  glaucodea  Tuckerm.  C.  grisea  var.  mutica  Carey.  Moist 
thickets.     O.  S.     June,  July. 

C.  flaccosperma  Dew.  C.  laxiflora  var.  mutica  Torr.  Thick- 
ets.    O.  S.     June. 

C.  granulans  Miihl.     Wet  meadows.     O.  S.     May-July. 

C.  Crawei  Dew.     Cedar  glades,  Lavergne.     May,  June. 

C.  oligocarpa  Schk.  Paradise  Ridge,  Jones'  Bend,  David- 
son County.     June. 

C.  Hitchcockiana  Dew.  Adjoining  Tennessee,  Southwest 
Virginia.     J.  K.  Small.     May-July. 

C.  laxiflora  Lam.     Wet  woodlands.     O.  S.     May-July. 

C.  plantaginea  Lam.  Ducktown,  E.  Tenn.  Waters  of  Hol- 
ston  River.     J.  K.  Small.     May,  June. 

C.  setifolia  (Dewey)  Britton.  C.  uburnea  Boott  E.  Tenn. 
A.  Ruth.     May-July." 

C.  Pennsylvanica  Lam.  Dry  woodlands.  O.  S.  May, 
June. 

C.  varia  Miihl.  C.  Emmonsii  Dewey.  Nashville,  Knox. 
ville.     A.  Ruth.     May-July. 

C.  nigro-marginata  Schwein.  Dry  copses,  Nashville.  May- 
July. 

C.  Jamesii  Schwein.  C.  Steudelii  Kunth.  Highlands.  O. 
S.     April,  May. 

C.  leptalea  Wahl.  C.  polytrichoides  Willd.  Mountain 
bogs,  E.  Tenn.     June-August. 

C.  Fraseri  Andr.  Southwest  Virginia,  adjoining  Tennes- 
see.    J.  K.  Small.     May-July. 


Tennessee   Flora. 

C.  juncea  Willd.     Roane  Mt.     Chickering.     July. 

C.  stipata  Miihl.     White  Top  Mt.     J.  K.  Small. 

C.  teretiuscula  Goodw.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     May-July. 

C.  vulpinoidea  Michx.     O.  S.     June-August. 

C.  rosea  Schk.     E.  Tcnn.      May-July. 

C.  retroflexa  Miihl.     Nashville.     May-July. 

C.  radiata  Dewey.  C.  rosea  var.  radiata  Britt.  E.  Tenn. 
A.  Ruth. 

C.  sparganioides  Miihl.     Rich  woods.     O.  S.     June-Auj 

C.  cephalophora  Miihl.  Nashville.  Kingston  Springs. 
May-July. 

C.  Miihlenbergii  Schk.     Nashville.     May-July. 

C.  sterilis  Willd.     O.  S.     May-July. 

C.  canescens  L.     O.  S.     Nashville.     May- July. 

C.  brunnescens  Poir.  C.  canescens  var.  alpicola  Wahl. 
Summit  of  White  Top. 

C.  brunnescens  gracilior  Britt.  With  the  former.  Moun- 
tains of  Southwest  Virginia  and  perhaps  in  the  Smokies.  J. 
K.  Small.     June,  July. 

C.  cephaloidea  Dewey.  Paradise  Ridge,  Davidson  County. 
May-July. 

C.  tribuloides  Wahl.     C.  lagopodioides  Schk.     E.  Tenn.     A 
Ruth. 

C.  scoparia  Schk.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     June,  July. 

C.  cristatella  Britt.  C.  cristata  Schwein.  Southwest  Vir- 
ginia.    J.  K.  Small. 

C.  macrokolea  Steud.  C.  verrucosa  Ell.  Madison.  \Y.  Tenn. 
S.  M.  Bain.     June-August. 

C.  straminea  Willd.     O.  S.     June,  July. 

C.  Digitalis  Willd.     Low  grounds.     O.  S.     June.  July. 

C.  Careyana  Torr.     Southwest  Virginia.     J.  K.  Small. 

C.  laxiculmis  Schwein.  White  Top  Mt..  Southwest  Vir- 
ginia.    J.  K.  Small.     May,  June. 

C.  Atlantica  Bailey.  C.  stellulata  var.  conferta  Chapm. 
Jackson.     S.  M.  Bain.     June. 

C.  Leavenworthii  Dewey.     E.  Tenn.     A.  Ruth. 

C.  Austro-Carolinensis  Britton.     E.  Tenn.     A.  Ruth. 

ARACE^E  Neck. 
ARIS^MA  Man. 
Arissema  triphyllum    (L.)    Torrey.     Indian   Turnip. 
in-the-pulpit.    Rich,  moist  woodland-.    O.  S.     April,  May.    M 

A.  Dracontium  (L.)  Schott.     Dragon  root.     With  the 
mer.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

PELTANDRA  Rat 
Peltandra  Virginica  (  L.)  Kunth.     <  ).  S.     En  swamps.     July. 


54  Tennessee  Flora. 

SPATHYEMA  Raf.     Symplocarpus  Salisb. 

Spathyema  foetida  (L.)  Salisb.  Symplocarpus  foetidus 
Nutt.  Mountain  bogs,  E.  Tenn. ;  Duck  River,  M.  Tenn. 
Skunk  cabbage.     February-April.     M. 

ORONTIUM  L. 

Orontium  aquaticum  L.  Golden  Club.  Cleveland,  E.  Tenn. 
With  Peltandra.     April. 

ACORUS  L. 

Acorus  Calamus  L.  Calamus  root.  E.  Tenn.  Perhaps 
from  imported  stock.     Cultivated  here  and  there.     M. 

LEMNACEJE  Dumort. 

SPIRODELA  Schleid. 

Spirodela  polyrhiza  (L.)  Schleiden.     In  all  ponds.     O.  S. 

LEMNA  L. 

Lemna  trisulca  L.     Ponds  and  ditches.     O.  S. 

L.  gibba  L.     Duck  weed.     In  all  ponds.     O.  S. 

L.  minor  L.     With  the  former. 

L.  perpusilla  Torr.     Shelby  Pond,  Nashville.     June,  July. 

WOLFFIA  Horkel. 

Wolffia  Columbiana  Karst.  Slightly  submerged  and  fre- 
quently adhering  to  other  aquatics.  Stagnant  ponds  near 
Nashville.     June,  July. 

W.  Brasiliensis  Weddel.  Floating  on  the  surface.  In  a 
pond  on  the  grounds  of  the  Tennessee  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane.    June,  July. 

XYRIDACEiB  Lindley. 
XYRIS  L. 

Xyris  flexuosa  Miihl.  Yellow-eyed  grass.  In  a  swamp  in 
Hadley's  Bend,  in  Davidson  County.  Marshy  regions  in  the 
oak  barrens  at  Tullahoma.     July-September. 

X.  montana  H.  Ries.  X.  flexuosa  var.  pusilla  Gray.  Moun- 
tain meadows  and  brooks.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     July,  August. 

ERIOCAULONACEJE. 

ERIOCAULON  Lindl. 

Eriocaulon  decangulare  L.  Pipewort.  Mountain  mead- 
ows of  E.  Tenn.     June-October. 


Tennessee   Flora. 

COMMELINACEJ-:   Reichenb. 
COMMELINA  L. 

Commelina  nudiflora  L.  Day  flower.  Alluvial  hank-.  <  » 
S.     July,  August. 

C.  hirtella  Vahl.     Shaded  bluffs,  Nashville.     Augusts 
ber. 

C.  Virginica  L.     Copses.     O.  S. 

C.  Virginica  angustifolia  Michx.  Cedar  glades  of  M.  Tenn. 
July,  August. 

TRADESCANTIA  L. 

Tradescantia  Virginiana  L.  Spiderwort.  Rich  woodland-. 
O.  S.     May. 

T.  montana  Schuttlw.  Wolf  Creek,  Cocke  County,  E.  Tenn. 
T.  H.  Kearney.     June,  July. 

T.  brevicaulis  Raf.     Bluffs  on  Mill  Creek.  Nashville.     June. 

PONTEDERIACE^:  Dumort. 
PONTEDERIA  L. 

Pontederia  cordata  L.     Pickerel  weed.     Wild  Goose  Pond, 

near  Mitchellville,  Robertson  County.     June-October. 

HETERANTHERA  R.  &  P. 

Heteranthera  uniformis  R.  &  P.  Mud  plantain.  Ditches 
and  ponds.     O.  S.     August. 

H.  limosa  (Sw.)  Willd.  With  the  former.  O.  S.  Ponds 
near  Nashville.     August. 

H.  dubia  (Jacq.)  MacM.  Schollera  graminifolia  A.  Gray. 
Water  star  grass.     E.  and  W.  Tenn. 

JUNCACEJE  Vent. 
JUNCUS  L. 

Juncus  effusus  L.  Common  rush.  In  swamps  and  moist 
places.     O.  S.     June-September. 

J.  bufonius  L.     Toad  rush.     In  clayey  soil     July-*  tetober. 

J.  tenuis  Willd.  Roadsides  in  damp  soil;  very  common. 
O.  S.     June. 

J.  secundus   Beauv.     J.  tenuis  var.   secundus    Engelm.     1 
Tenn.     Oakland  Station*.  Robertson  County. 

J.  setaceus  Rostk.     Along  streams.     (  >.  S.     June.  July. 

J.  repens  Michx.  Miry  places  in  the  barrens  of  M.  Tenn. 
Tullahoma.     June-August. 

J.  marginatus  Rostk.      Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  and  in  the  oak 
rens  of  M.  Tenn.     June. 


56  Tennessee  Flora. 

J.  pelocarpus  E.  Meyer.     Tullahoma.     July. 

J.  articulatus  L.     Cleveland,  E.  Tenn.     July. 

J.  Canadensis  J.  Gray.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  August,  Septem- 
ber. 

J.  acuminatus  Michx.  O.  S.  Var.  legitimus  Engelm.  Au- 
gust. 

J.  acuminatus  debilis  (A.  Gray).     Engelm. 

J.  robustus  (Engelm.)  Coville.  Hollow  Rock,  W.  Tenn. 
August,  September. 

J.  diffusissimus  Engelm.  Ponds  in  the  barrens  at  Tulla- 
homa. 

J.  leptocaulis  Torr.  &  Gray.  Cedar  glades  of  M.  Tenn. 
May,  June. 

JUNCOIDES  Adans.     (Luzula  DC.) 

Juncoides  pilosum  (L.)  Kuntze.  Wood  rush.  Luzula  pi- 
losa  Willd.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

J.  campestre  (L.)  Kuntze.  Luzula  campestris  DC.  Wood- 
lands.    O.  S.     June,  July. 

MELANTHACE^E  R.  Br. 

XEROPHYLLUM  Michx. 

m  Xerophyllum    asphodeloides    Michx.     Turkey    beard.     Dry 
woodlands,  E.  Tenn.     A.  Ruth.     May-July. 

CHAM^LIRIUM  Willd. 

Chamaelirium  luteum  (L.)  A.  Gray.  Blazing  star.  Ch. 
Carolinianum  Willd.     Dry  woodlands.     O.  S.     May-July.    M. 

CHROSPERMA  Raf.     (Amianthium  A  Gray.) 

Chrosperma  muscaetoxicum  (Walt.)  Kuntze.  Amianthium 
muscsetoxicum  A.  Gray.  Fly  poison.  Boggy  woodlands,  E. 
Tenn.     Cave  Spring,  Roane  County.     May,  June. 

STENANTHIUM  Kunth. 

Stenanthium  gramineum  (L.)  Morong.  St.  angustifolium 
Kunth.     Chilhowee  and  Cumberland  Mts.     July,  August. 

St.  robustum  S.  Watson.  Wet  ground.  Tullahoma,  South 
Tunnel,  and  in  the  Frog  Mts.,  E.  Tenn.     July. 

ZYGADENUS  Michx. 

Zygadenus  leimanthoides  S.  Watson.  Frog  Mts.,  E.  Tenn. 
July. 

Z.  angustifolius  S.  Watson.     Barrens  at  Tullahoma.     June. 


Tennessee   Floba.  57 

MELANTHIUM  L. 

Melanthium  Virginicum  L.  Bush  flower.  High  moun- 
tains of  E.  Tenn.     July. 

M.  parviflorum  S.  Watson.     With  the  former.     June,  July. 

VERATRUM  L. 

Veratrum  viride  Ait.  American  white  hellebore.  Indian 
poke.  Wolf  Creek  and  Bench  Mt.,  Cocke  County,  E.  Tenn. 
May-July.     M. 

UVULARIA  L. 

Uvularia  perfoliata  L.     Bellworth.     South  Tunnel,  Sumner 

County.     Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.     May,  June. . 

U.  grandiflora  J.  E.  Smith.  Rich  soil  on  the  bluffs  of  Cum- 
berland River.     Paradise  Ridge.     April-June. 

U.    sessilifolia    L.      Oakland    Station,    Robertson    County. 

June,  July. 

U.  puberula  Michx.  Oakesia  puberula  S.  Watson.  South- 
west Virginia,  adjoining  Tennessee.     J.  K.  Small. 

LILIACE.E  Adans. 
HEMEROCALLIS  L. 

Hemerocallis  fulva  L.     Day  lily.     Introduced  and  e£C; 
from  cultivation.     Near  old  homesteads.     June,  July. 

H.  flava  L.     Introduced  and  sometimes  astray.     June,  July. 

ALLIUM  L. 
Allium  tricoccum  Ait.     Wild  leek.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.      Tune. 

July- 

A.  cernuum  Roth.  Wild  onion.  Frequent.  0.  S.  July, 
August. 

A.  vineale  L.  Crow  garlick.  A  weed  in  cultivated  grounds. 
Old  Citv  Cemetery,  Nashville.     Tune,  July    . 

A.  Alleghanense  John  K.  Small.  Buffalo  Park,  Wolf  Creek. 
H.  Allen. 

A.  Canadense  L.     Moist  thickets.     O.  S.      May,  June. 

A.  mutabile  Michx.     Cedar  glades.  Lavergne.      May. 

The  following  species  are  in  general  cultivation: 

A.  Cepa  L.      The  onion,  in  several  varieties. 

A.  sativum  L.     Garlie. 

A.  Porrum  L.     Leek. 

A.  Ascallonicum  L.     Shallot. 

A.  Scorodoprasum  L.     Rocambole  or  potato  onion. 

A.  Schoenoprasum  L.     Chive. 


58  Tennessee  Flora. 

NOTHOSCORDIUN   Kunth. 

Nothoscordum  bivalve  (L.)  Britton.  Frequent.  •  O.  S. 
March-June. 

LILIUM  L. 

Lilium  Philadelphicum  L.  Red  lily.  Cumberland  Mts. 
Mrs.  J.  Bennett. 

L.  Canadense  L.  Yellow  lily.  Moist  woodlands.  Para- 
dise Ridge.     Mountains  about  Ducktown,  E.  Tenn.     July. 

L.  Grayi  S.  Watson.  Summit  of  Roane  Mt.  Prof.  A.  Gray. 
Chickering.     July. 

L.  superbum  L.  Turk's-cap  lily.  High  peaks  of  the  East 
Tennessee  mountains.     Frog  Mt.     July. 

L.  Carolinianum  Mich.  Mountain  region  of  E.  Tenn.,  ad- 
joining North  Carolina.     July. 

ERYTHRONIUM  L. 

Erythronium  Americanum  Ker.  Yellow  adder's  tongue. 
O.  S.     April.     31. 

E.  albidum  Nutt.  White  adder's  tongue.  White's  Bend, 
below  Nashville.     Roane  Mt.,  E.  Tenn.     Canby. 

QUAMASIA  Raf. 

Quamasia  hyacinthina  (Raf.)  Britton.  Scilla  Fraseri  A. 
Gray.     Wild  hyacinth.     Rich  woodlands.     O.  S.     April. 

SCHOENOLIRIUM  Gray. 

Schoenolirium  croceum  Gray.  Moist  places  in  the  cedar 
glades  at  Lavergne.     May. 

ORNITHOGALUM  L. 

Ornithogalum  umbellatum  L.  Star  of  Bethlehem.  Natu- 
ralized from  Europe.  Frequent  in  grass  plots  and  fields. 
May-June. 

MUSCARI  Mill. 

Muscari  botryoides  L.  Grape  hyacinth.  Adventive  from 
Europe.     Escaping  in  adjoining  fields.     April. 

ALETRIS  L. 

Aletris  farinosa  L.  Star  grass.  Colic  root.  Frequent  in 
the  oak  barrens.     O.  S.     June.     31. 

YUCCA  L. 

Yucca  filamentosa  L.  Adam's  needle.  Drv,  rocky  ground. 
O.  S.     May. 


Tennessee   Flora. 

CONVALLARIACE^l  Lindl. 

ASPARAGUS  L. 

Asparagus  officinalis  L.  Escaped  from  cultivation  and  nat- 
uralized.    May,  June. 

CLINTONIA  Raf. 

Clintonia  borealis  Raf.  Summits  of  the  Smoky  Mts.,  White 
Top  Mi,  Pine  Mt.     S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small. 

C.  umbellata  Torr.     Big  Frog  Mt.,  Smoky  Mts.     June. 

VAGNERA  Adans.     (Smilacina  Desf.) 

Vagnera  racemosa  (L.)  Morong.  Wild  spikenard.  Rich 
woodlands.     O.  S.     May-July. 

V.  stellata  (L.)  Morong.     Solomon's  seal.     Waters  of  Hoi- 

ston  River.     J.  K.  Small.     June. 

UNIFOLIUM  Adans. 

Unifolium  Canadense  (Desf.)  Greene.  Smilacina  bifolia 
var.  Canadensis  A.  Gray.  Summit  of  Big  Thunderhead, 
Smoky  Mts.     May-July. 

DISPORUM  Salisb. 

Disporum  lanuginosum  (Michx.)  Nichols.  Prosartes  lanug- 
inosa Don.     Rich  woodlands.     O.  S.     May.  June. 

D.  maculatum  Benth.  &  Hooker.  Prosartes  maculata  <  ira\ . 
Mts.  of  E.  Tenn. 

STREPTOPUS  Michx. 

Streptopus  roseus  Michx.  Smoky  Mts..  Big  Thunderhead. 
May- July. 

POLYGONATUM  Adans. 

Polygonatum  biflorum  (Walt.)  Ell.  Hairy.  Solomon's 
seal.     Woods  and  thickets.     O.  S.     April-July. 

P.  commutatum    (R.   &  S.)    Dietrich.      P.   giganteum    I 
Solomon's    seal.     In    rich,    moist    woodlands.     Along 

courses.     May-July. 

CONVALLARIA  L. 

Convallaria  majalis  L.  Lily  of  the  valley.  Frequent  in 
cultivation,  but  native  of  the  higher  Alleghanies.  Little  and 
Big  Frog  Mt.,  E.  Tenn.      May.  June.      M. 

MEDEOLA  L. 
Medeola  Virginiana   L.     Indian   cucumber   root.     Cumber- 
land and  Alleehanv  Mts.     May. 


60  Tennessee  Flora. 

TRILLIUM  L. 

Trillium  sessile  L.  Wake  robin.  Moist  woodlands.  O.  S- 
April. 

T.  recurvatum  Beck.  With  the  former.  Nashville. 
Eaglesville,  Rutherford  County.     S.  M.  Bain.     April-June. 

T.  grandiflorum  (Michx.)  Salisb.  Hills  west  of  Nashville, 
Cumberland  Alts.,  Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     April. 

T.  erectum  L.     O.  S.     April.     M. 

T.  cernuum  L.     Lookout  Mt.,  Ducktown.     April. 

T.  undulatum  Willd.  T.  erythrocarpum  Michx.  Ocoee  Val- 
ley, Polk  County.  White  Top  Mt.,  Southwest  Virginia.  J. 
K.  Small. 

T.  Underwoodii  n.  sp.  J.  K.  Small  in  Torr.  Botanical  Bul- 
letin, April,  1897.  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee  mountains. 
April,  May. 

T.  viride  Beck.  T.  sessile  var.  Nuttallii  S.  Watson.  Woods 
and  glades.     Tennessee  to  Missouri.     April,  May. 

T.  luteum  Small.  ined.  Rich  woods.  Knox  County. 
A.  Ruth.     May. 


SMILACE^E  Vent. 
SMILAX  L. 

Smilax  herbacea  L.  Carion  flower.  Woods  and  thickets. 
O.  S.     April-June.     M. 

S.  tamnifolia  Michx.     In  dry  soil.     O.  S.     May^  June. 

Smilax  ecirrhata  S.  Watson.  Southwest  Virginia,  adjoin- 
ing Tennessee.     J.  K.  Small.     May,  June. 

S.  glauca  Walter.  Greenbrier.  Dry,  sandy  soil.  O.  S. 
May,  June. 

S.  rotundifolia  L.  S.  quadrangularis  Willd.  Greenbrier, 
Horsebrier.     Very  abundant  in  M.  Tenn. 

S.  rotundifolia  crenulata  Small  &  Heller.  Waters  of  Hol- 
ston  Riber.     J.  K.  Small.     June. 

S.  hispida  Miihl.  Low,  moist  thickets.  Nashville.  O.  S. 
June,  July. 

S.  Pseudo-China  L.  Sarsaparilla.  Tuberous  rootstock,  lo- 
cally known  as  sarsaparilla.  Along  river  banks  and  up  to  the 
mountains.     March- August.     M. 

S.  Bona-nox  L.  S.  tamnoides  A.  Gray.  In  thickets.  O.  S. 
April-June. 

S.  laurifolia  L.  Foot  of  Lookout  Mt.  Memphis.  An  ever- 
green, useful  for  decorations.     March-September. 

S.  Walteri  Pursh.  In  wet  ground.  Credited  to  Tennessee 
in  Illustrated  Flora. 


Tennessee   Flora.  61 

AMARYLLIDACK.E  Lindl. 
HYMENOCALLIS  Salisb. 

Hymenocallis  occidentalis  (Le  Conte),  Kunth.  Pancra- 
tium Carolinianum  L.  Moist,  meadow  lands.  I  >.  S.  July- 
September. 

AGAVE  L. 

Agave  Virginica  L.     In  dry  soil.     O.  S.     July.  August. 

HYPOXIS  L. 

Hypoxis  erecta  L.  Star  grass.  In  dry  glades.  (  >.  > 
May. 

DIOSCOREACEiE  Lindl. 

DIOSCOREA  L. 

Dioscorea  villosa  L.  Wild  yam  root.  In  moist  thickets. 
O.  S.     June,  July.     M. 

D.  Batatas  L.  Is  sometimes  found  as  an  ornamental  vim* 
in  our  gardens,  but  is  not  cultivated  for  its  deeply-buried  tu- 
bers. 

IRIDACE^E  Lindl. 

IRIS  L. 

Iris  versicolor  L.  Larger  Blue  Flag.  In  marshes  and  thick- 
ets.    O.  S.     May-July.     M. 

I.  hexagona  Walter.      On  the  western   side  of  Tenn< 
River  at  Johnsonville.     Hollow  Rock.     April,  May. 

I.  prismatica  Pursh.  I.  Virginica  Miihl.  Abundant  in  the 
wet  oak  barrens  east  of  Tullahoma.      May,  Juno. 

I.  Germanica  L.  Fleur-de-lis.  On  an  abandoned  garden 
plot  on  Charlotte  Pike,  near  Nashville.     May.  June. 

I.  fulva  Ker.  I.  cuprea  Pursh.  \Y.  Tenn.,  near  Humboldt. 
May,  June. 

I.  cristata  Ait.  On  hillsides  and  in  open  woodlands.  I  V  S. 
April,  May. 

I.  verna  L.  Cumberland  Mts.  Rugby.  Mr-.  Perciva!. 
April,  May. 

NEMASTYLIS  Nutt. 

Nemastylis  acuta  (Bart.)  Herb.  Ixia  acuta  Bart.  Cred- 
ited to  Tennessee  in  the  Illustrated  Flora. 

GEMMINGIA   Fabr.     (Pardanthus    Ker.) 

Gemmingia  Chinensis  (L.)  Kuntze.  Pardanthus  Chinen- 
sis    Ker.     Blackberrv    lily.     O.    S.     Very    abundant.     I 

lected    it   alreadv   fifty   vears    ago    in    the   remotest    mountain 


62  Tennessee  Flora. 

glens,  and  think  it  is  really  indigenous,  not  naturalized  from 
Asia.     June. 

SISYRINCHIUM  L. 

Sisyrinchium  graminoides  Bicknell.  Blue-eyed  grass. 
Sisyrinchium  anceps  Wats.     O.  S.     April-June. 

S.  angustifolium  Mill.  S.  mucronatum  Michx.  O.  S. 
May,  June. 

ORCHIDACEvE  Lindl. 

CYPRIPEDIUM  L. 

Cypripedium  reginae  Walt.  C.  spectabile  Salisb.  Lady's 
slipper.     Ducktown.     June-September. 

C.  hirsutum  Mill.  C.  pubescens  Willd.  Paradise  Ridge, 
near  Nashville;  Lookout  Mt.,  and  throughout  the  Cumberland 
Mts.     May,  June.     M. 

C.  parviflorum  Salisb.  Hills  near  Nashville.  Mts.  of  E. 
Tenn.     May-July. 

C.  acaule  Ait.  Moccasin  flower.  Alleghanies  and  Cum- 
berland Alts.     May. 

ORCHIS  L. 

Orchis  spectabilis  L.  Rich  woodlands  around  Nashville. 
April,  May. 

HABENARIA  Willd. 

Habenaria  orbiculata  (Pursh.)  Torrey.  Slopes  of  White 
Top  Alt.,  Southwest  Virginia,  adjoining  Tennessee.  J.  K. 
Small.     July. 

H.  integra  (Nutt.)  Sprengel.  Tullahoma,  Mitchellville. 
Julv. 

H.  bracteata  (Willd.)  R.  Br.  Waters  of  Holston  River.  J. 
K.  Small.     May. 

H.  clavellata  (Michx.)  Spreng.  H.  tridentata  Willd.  Fre- 
quent in  the  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.     July,  August. 

H.  flava  (L.)  A.  Gray.  H.  virescens  Spreng.  Bogs,  W. 
Tenn.     June. 

H.  cristata  (Michx.)  R.  Br.  Sewanee,  Cumberland  Mts. 
July,  August. 

H.  cilaris  (L.)  R.  Br.  Edgefield  Junction.  E.  Tenn.  July, 
August. 

H.  blephariglottis  (Willd.)  Torrey.     Tullahoma.     August. 

H.  psycodes  (L.)  A.  Gray.  White  Top  Mt.,  S.  W.  Va.  J. 
K.  Small. 

H.  peramoena  A.  Gray.  Cedar  Hill ;  Mitchellville,  Robert- 
son County.     July. 

H.  Michauxii  Nutt.  Grassy  Cove,  in  the  Cumberland  Mts. 
Mrs.  L.  Bennett.     July. 


Tennessee   Flora. 

POGONIA  Juss, 

Pogonia  ophioglossoides  (  L.)  Ker.  Snake-mouth.  Hiwas- 
see,  Polk  County.     June,  July. 

P.  trianthophora  (Sw.)  B.  &  P.     P.  pendula  Lindl.     In  leal 
mold  in  the  highlands  of  M.  Tenn.,   Mitchellville,  War 
Frequent.     August,  September. 

P.  divaricata  (L.)  B.  Br.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     July. 

P.  verticillata  Nutt.     Sewanee.     E.  Kirby-Smith.     July. 

GYROSTACHYS  Pers.     (Spiranthes  L.  C.  Rich/. 

Gyrostachys  plantaginea  (Raf.)  Britton.  Spiranthes  lati- 
folia  Torr.  Lady's  tresses.  Southwest  Virginia,  adjoining 
Tennessee.     J.  K.  Small.     June-August. 

G.  cernua  (L.)  Kuntze.  Spiranthes  cernua  L.  Barrens 
around  Tullahoma.     August. 

G.  praecox  (Walt.)  Kuntze.  Spiranthes  precox  S.  Watson. 
Grassy  places.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

G.  simplex  (A.  Gray)  Kuntze.  Harpeth  hills,  south  of 
Nashville,  in  siliceous  soil.     Abundant.     August,  September. 

G.  gracilis  (Bizel.)  Kuntze.  Grass  plots  around  Nashville. 
Barrens.     September. 

LISTERA  R.  Br. 

Listera  convallarioides  (Sw.)  Torrey.  TwaJ-blade.  Slopes 
of  White  Top  Mt.,  Southwest  Virginia.  J.  K.  Small.  June- 
August. 

L.  australis  Lindl.     E.  Tenn.     A.  Ruth. 

PERAMIUM  Salisb.     (Goodyera  R.  Br.) 

Peramium  repens  (L.)  Salisbury.     Goodyera  repens  R.  Br. 

Rattlesnake  plantain.     O.  S. 

P.  pubescens  (Willd.)  McM.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     July. 

ACHROANTHES  Raf.     (Microstylis  Nutt.) 

Achroanthes  unifolia  (Michx.)  Raf.     Microstylis  ophioj 

soides  Nutt.      Adder's  mouth.      Cumberland    Mts.       Mrs.    L. 
Bennett.     Lemon's  Gap.     A.  Ruth. 

LEPTORCHIS  Thouars.     I  Liparis  L.  C.  Richard.) 

Leptorchis  liliifolia  (L.)  Kuntze.  Liparis  liliifolia  L.  C. 
Rich.  W.  Tenn.  S.  M.  Bain.  S.  W.  Va.  J.  K.  Small. 
May-July. 

L.  Loesellii  (L.)  McM.     Water-  of  Holston  River.     J.   K. 

Small.     May-July. 


£4  Tennessee  Flora. 

CORALLORHIZA  R.  Br. 

Corallorhiza  Corallorhyza  (L.)  Karst.  C.  innata  R.  Br. 
Coral  root.     Highlands  of  Middle  Tennessee.     May,  June. 

C.  odontorhiza  (Willd.)  Nutt.  Harpeth  hills,  south  of 
Nashville.     July-September.     M. 

C.  multiflora  Nutt.  In  leaf  mold  in  dry  woodlands.  O.  S. 
June,  July. 

C.  Wisteriana  Conn.     E.  Tenn,  Hiwassee  Valley.     R.  Ruth. 

TIPULARIA  Nutt. 

Tipularia  unifolia  (Miihl.)  B.  &  P.  T.  discolor  Nutt. 
Crane  fly  Orchis.  Vicinity  of  Ducktown,  in  Fanning  County, 
Ga.     July,  August. 

LIMODORUM  L.     (Calopogon  R.  Br.) 

Limodorum  tuberosum  L.  Calopogon  pulchellus  R.  Br. 
Grass  pink.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  and  oak  barrens  of  M.  Tenn. 
June,  July. 

HEXALECTRIS  Raf.     (Bletia  Nutt.) 

Hexalectris  aphylla  (Nutt.)  Raf.  Bletia  aphylla  Nutt. 
Parksville,  Polk  County.  Dry  hills  east  of  Cleveland.  Un- 
der pines  (E.  Tenn.),  and  also  under  oaks  (hills  of  Davidson 
County).     July,  August. 

APLECTRUM  Nutt. 

Aplectrum  spicatum  (Walt.)  B.  S.  P.  Aplectrum  hyemale 
Nutt.  Potty  root.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  S.  W.  Va.  J.  K.  Small. 
May-July. 

SUBCLASS  2.     DICOTYLEDONES. 

SAURURACEJE  Lindl. 

SAURURUS  L. 

Saururus  cernuus  L.  Lizard's  tail.  In  stagnant  waters. 
O.  S.     June-August. 

JUGLANDACEJE  Lindl. 
JUGLANS  L. 

Juglans  nigra  L.     Black  walnut.     O.  S.     M. 

J.  cinerea  L.  Butternut.  White  walnut.  Creek  and  river 
bottom  lands.     O.  S.     April,  May.     Fruit  ripe  in  October.     M. 

J.  regia  L.  The  English  walnut  is  sparingly  introduced, 
and  seems  to  grow  well. 


Tennessee   Floba. 
HICKORIA  Raf.     (Carya  \ 

Hickoria  Pecan  (Marsh.)  Britton.     Pecan.     Tennessee  and 

Mississippi  bottoms  in  West  Tennessee.     Some  larg< 
the  vicinity  of  Nashville  have  been  planted  by  early  settl 

H.  minima  (Marsh.)  Britton.  Carya  amara  Xuti.  Swamp 
hickory.  Bitternut.  Swampy  -rounds  along  Cumberland 
River  below  Nashville.     May,  June.     Fruit  in  I  October. 

H.    ovata    (Mill.)    Britton.     Carya    alba    Xutt.     Shell 
hickory.     O.  S.     May.     Fruit  in  September. 

H.  laciniosa  (Michx.  fil)   Sargent.     Big  shag  bark.     King- 
nut.     Carya  sulcata  Nutt.     In  rich  soil.  '  O.  S.      May. 
in  September,  October. 

H.  alba  (L.)  Britton.  Carya  tomentosa  Nutt.  Mockernut. 
O.  S.      May.     Fruit  in  October. 

H.  microcarpa  (Nutt.)  Britton.  Carya  microcarpa  Xutt. 
Lookout  Mt.     May.     Fruit  in  October. 

H.   glabra    (Mill.)    Britton.     Carya   porcina    Nutt.      I' 
hickory.     Very  frequent  on  the  Cumberland  Plateau.      May, 
June.     Fruit  in  October,  November. 

*H.  Carolinae-septentrionalis  Ashe.     Tennessee.     (Vid 
lustrated  Flora;  Appendix,  page  511.) 

SALICACE.E  Lindl. 
POPULUS  L. 

Populus  alba  L.  Abele.  White  or  silver-leaf  poplar.  Na- 
tive from  Europe.  Roadsides  and  yard-.  Difficult  to  eradi- 
cate where  it  is  undesirable.     March. 

P.  balsamifera  candicans  (Ait.)  A.  Gray.  Balm  of  Gilead. 
Transplanted  from  the  Northern  territories,  it  escaped  cultiva- 


*H.   Carolinae-septentrionalis  Ashe.     A  small   tree  attaining  B    max 
imum  height  of  eighty  feet  and  a  diameter  of  two  and  one-half 
with  gray  bark,  hanging  in  long,  loose  strips;   bud  Bcales,  from 
to  ten,  imbricate,  the  inner  greatly  enlarging   In   leafing,   and   tardily 
deciduous;   terminal  bud,  ovate-lanceolate,  truncate,  the  seal 
ing.    barely    one-third    inch    long;     lateral    buds,    oblong;    I 
slender,    one-eighth    inch    thick,    glaucous,    smooth,     purplish  bi 
staminate  aments  in  threes,  glabrous  on   short    peduncles   at    be 
shoots  of  the  season;    stamens,   glabrous:    ovary,   glabrous; 
liage  blackening  in  drying,  glabrous,  ciliate,   with   few   resil 
ules;   leaflets,  three  to  five;   the  two  upper,  three-fourths  Inch  to 
and  one-fourth  inches  wide,  four  to  six  inches  long,  lai 
pair,  often  smaller;    fruit.   suDglobose,three-fourths   Inch   to 
one-fourth  inch  long;    husk,  soon  falling  Into  four  pieces;    nul 
or  brownish,  much  compressed,  angled,   cordate  or  BUDCOrdal 
thin-shelled;  seed,  large  and  sweet. 


66  Tennessee  Flora. 

tion,  and  is  scatteringlv  found  in  the  woods  in  E.  Tenn. 
April.     M. 

P.  heterophylla  L.  Swamp  or  downy  poplar.  In  wet  wood- 
lands.    April,  May. 

P.  grandidentata  Michx.  Credited  to  our  State  in  Gray's 
Manual. 

P.  deltoides  Marsh.  Cottonwood.  P.  monilifera  Ait.  Fre- 
quent in  all  parts  of  the  State.     April,  May. 

P.  dilatata  Ait.  Lombardy  poplar.  Frequently  planted, 
but  short-lived  in  this  State. 

SALIX  L. 

Salix  nigra  Marsh.  Black  willow.  Banks  of  streams.  O. 
S.     April,  May.     M. 

S.  Wardii  Bebb.  Along  Cumberland  River,  Nashville. 
April. 

S.  lucida  Miihl.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     April,  May. 

S.  Babylonica  L.  Weeping  willow.  Widely  cultivated. 
O.  S.     Native  of  Asia.     April. 

S.  purpurea  L.  Basket  willow.  Introduced  and  cultivated 
for  wickerware.     March,  April. 

S.  humilis  Marsh.  Prairie  willow.  In  the  oak  barrens  in 
dry  soil  and  on  the  high  mountains.  Summit  of  Big  Frog  Mt. 
April. 

S.  tristis  Ait.  Dwarf  gray  willow.  In  dry  barrens.  Tul- 
lahoma.     March,  April. 

S.  sericea  Marsh.  Banks  of  White  Top  Creek,  S.  W.  Va. 
J.  K.  Small.     May. 

S.  petiolaris  J.  E.  Smith.  Frequent  around  Nashville. 
Grows  to  a  tree  thirty  feet  high.     April. 

S.  longifolia  Miihl.  S.  fluviatilis  Nutt.  W.  Tenn.  April, 
May. 

S.  alba  L.  Introduced  from  Europe.  In  moist  soil.  April.  M. 

BETULACE.E  Agardh. 
CARPINUS  L. 

Carpinus  Caroliniana  Walt.  American  hornbeam.  Water 
beech.  In  moist  woods.  O.  S.  April,  May.  Fruit  ripe  in 
August,  September. 

OSTRYA  Scop. 

Ostrya  Virginiana  (Mill.)  Willd.  Hop  hornbeam.  Iron- 
wood.  In  dry  lands.  O.  S.  April,  May.  Fruit  ripe  in  July, 
August. 


Tennessee    Flora.  67 

CORYLUS  L. 

Corylus  Americana  Walt.      Hazelnut.      From  the  mountains 
to   the    Mississippi    bottoms,    in    which    it    forms    widespi 
thickets.     March,  April.     Nuts  ripe-  in  July. 

C.  rostrata  Ait.      Dense  undergrowth   in   the   Alleghai 

April,  May.     Nuts  ripe  in  August. 

EETULA  L. 

Betula  nigra  L.     Red  birch.     A   slender  tree  lining  \. 
courses.     Frequent  in  W.  Tenn.     April,  May. 

B.  lenta  L.  Sweet  birch.  Black  birch.  Cumberland  and 
Alleghany  Mts.     April,  May.     .1/. 

B.  lutea  Mich.    Gray  birch.    Summit  of  Thunderhead.    May. 

ALNUS  Gaertn. 

Alnus  Alnobetula  (Ehrh.)  K.  Koch.  Mountain  alder.  Al- 
nus  viridis  DC.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     May,  June. 

A.  rugosa  (Du  Roi.)  K.  Koch.     Smooth  alder.     In  wet 
or  hillsides.     O.  S.     March.     M. 

FAGACE.E  Drude. 

FAGUS  L. 

Fagus  Americana  Sweet.  F.  ferruginea  Ait.  American 
beech.  O.  S.  Large  forest  tree,  attaining  from  50  t<>  120  feet 
in  height.     April,  May.     Fruiting  in  September,  October. 

CASTANEA  Adans. 

Castanea  dentata    (Marsh.)    Barkl.      C.   vesca   var.   Ameri- 
cana  Michx.     American   chestnut.     A   large  forest    tree    pre- 
ferring siliceous  soil,  attaining  from  80  to  100  feet.      Most  nu- 
merous in  the   Cumberland   Mts.     June.  July.     Nuts   ripe   in 
October. 

C.  pumila  (L.)  Mill.  Chinquapin.  A  shrub  or  small  tree, 
preferring  siliceous  soil.  O.  S.  June.  Nuts  ripe  in  Septem- 
ber. 

QUERCUS  L. 

Quercus  rubra  L.  Red  oak.  A  large  tree  attaining  in  rich 
land  a  height  of  140  feet  by  7  feet  diameter.  (  >.  S.  May. 
Acorns  ripe  in  October,  November.     M. 

Q.  Texana  Bucklev.  Texan  red  oak.  A  large  tree  when 
in  suitable  soil.  O.  S.  April,  May.  Acorns  ripe  in  Septem- 
ber, October.     Q.  palustris  Du  Roi  o\  first  edition. 

Q.  coccinea  Wang.     Scarlet  (  >ak.      Big  tree  from  So  to 
feet  high  by  from  4  to  5  feet   diameter.     <  >.   S.      May.   June. 
Acorns  ripe"  in  September,  October. 


68  Tennessee  Flora. 

Q.  velutina  Lam.  O.  tinctoria  Bartram.  O.  coccinea  var. 
tinctoria  A.  Gray.  Black  oak.  Quercitron.  Large  forest 
tree.  Maximum  height,  about  150  feet;  trunk  diameter,  5  feet. 
O.  S.     April,  May.     Fruit  maturing  the  next  season.     M. 

Q.  digitata  (Marsh.)  Ludw.  Spanish  oak.  (Q.  falcata 
Michx.)  Maximum  height,  90  feet  by  5  feet  diameter.  In  sili- 
ceous soil.     May,  June.     Acorns  ripe  in  October. 

Q.  nana  (Marsh.)  Sargent.  Q.  ilicifolia  Wang.  Bear  or 
scrub  oak.  Dry,  gravelly  places  in  the  barrens.  May. 
Acorns  maturing  in  October. 

Q.  Marylandica  Moench.  Black-jack  oak.  Stony,  gravelly 
ridges,  siliceous  formations.  O.  S.  May,  June.  Acorns  ma- 
ture in  October. 

Q.  nigra  L.  Water  oak.  Maximum  height,  about  80  feet ; 
diameter,  4  feet.  In  siliceous  and  argillaceous  soils.  M.  and 
E.  Tenn.  Prefers  the  banks  of  streams.  Ocoee  Valley.  April, 
May.  Acorns  in  September,  October.  Fruiting  the  second 
year. 

Q.  Phellos  L.  Willow  oak.  Large  tree,  attaining  from  80 
to  100  feet  by  3  feet  diameter.  Prefers  moist  situations  in  ar- 
gillaceous soils.  O.  S.  April,  May.  Fruit  maturing  in  Sep- 
tember.    Fruiting  the  second  year. 

Q.  imbricaria  Michx.  Shingle  oak.  Attaining  100  feet  by 
3!  feet  diameter.  Especially  frequent  in  the  basin  of  M.  Tenn. 
April,  May.     Fruit  maturing  the  second  year. 

Q.  alba  L.  White  oak.  Maximum  height,  150  feet  by  5 
feet  diameter.  O.  S.  May,  June.  Acorns  mature  in  Septem- 
ber, October.     M. 

Q.  minor  (Marsh.)  Sargent.  Post  oak.  Biggest  size,  100 
feet;  diameter  of  trunk,  4  feet.  In  dry  soil.  O.  S.  May, 
June.     Acorns  mature  same  year  in  September,  October. 

Q.  lyrata  Wralt.  Overcup  oak.  In  moist  soil,  mostly  in 
M.  Tenn.  Height,  100  feet  by  3  feet  diameter.  April,  May. 
Fruit  maturing  the  first  season. 

Q.  macrocarpa  Michx.  Mossy  cup  or  bur  oak.  A  large 
tree  , attaining  160  feet  by  8  feet  diameter.  Loves  rich  bot- 
tom lands.  O.  S.  May,  June.  Acorns  maturing  the  same 
season.     They  are  sometimes  2  inches  high. 

Q.  platanoides  (Lam.)  Ludw.  O.  bicolor  Willd.  Swamp 
white  oak.  A  large  tree,  attaining  no  feet  by  9  feet  diameter. 
Mississippi  bottoms.  May,  June.  Acorns  mature  in  Septem- 
ber, October.  . 

Q.  Michauxii  Nutt.  Cow  oak.  Attaining  100  feet  by  7  feet 
diameter.  Rich  bottom  lands.  O.  S.  April,  May.  Acorns 
ripe  in  September,  October. 

Q.  Prinus  L.     Rock  chestnut  oak.     Rocky,  but  rich,  hill- 


Tennessee    Floil 


sides.     Slopes  of  the   Cumberland    Mts.     Bark   gathered    for 
tanning.     May,  June.     Acorns  ripe  in  October,  November 

Q.  acuminata    (Michx.)    Sarg.      Q.    Muhlenbergii    Ei 
Dry  or  clamp  limestone  soil.      Frequeril  in   Davidson  County. 
May,  June.     Acorns  ripe  in  October,  November.     Edible. 

Q.  Boyntoni  C.  D.  Beadle,  n.  sp.  Common  on  Lookout 
Alt.,  near  Gadsden,  Ala.  It  very  probably  extends  also  on  the 
Tennessee  extension  of  Lookout  Mt. 

ULMACEiE  Mirbel. 
ULMUS  L. 

Ulmus  Americana  L.  White  elm.  A  robust  tree,  attain- 
ing a  height  of  120  feet  and  n  feet  diameter.  In  rich  and 
moist  soil.     O.  S.     March,  April.     Samaras  maturing  in  May. 

U.  racemosa  Thomas.  Rock  elm.  Grows  to  a  height  of 
ioo  feet  by  4  feet  diameter.     In  rich  soil.     Nashville. 

U.  alata  Michx.  Winged  elm.  Wahoo.  A  small  tree. 
Very  frequent  in  the  glades  of  M.  Tenn.  March.  Samara- 
ripe  in  April. 

U.  fulva  Michx.  Slippery  elm.  Tree  attaining  70  feet  by 
2\  feet  diameter.  Hillsides  and  along  streams.  Bark  mucil- 
aginous, fragrant  in  drying.  March,  April.  Fruit  matures 
in  April,  May.     M. 

fU.  serotina  Sargent.  Discovered  in  1878  near  grounds  of 
Vanderbilt  University.     Flowering  in  October. 

PLANERA  J.  F.  Gmelin. 

Planera  aquatica    (Walt.)   J.  T.   Gmelin.     Planer  tree.     A 

small  tree  40  feet  high.     Along  water  courses  and  in  swamps. 
W.  Tenn.     Bridgeport.     April,  May. 

*Q.  Boyntoni  C.  D.  Beadle.  Shrub  L-5  111.  tall,  usually  growinf 
in  large  clumps,  or  a  small  tree,  with  short  trunk  Less  than  1  dm.  in 
diameter;  leaves,  obovate  in  outline,  5-9  cm.  long,  l.fi-4  cm.  broad, 
with  from  three  to  five  small,  obtuse  lobes  above  the  middle,  cuneate 
from  the  lower  lobes  to  the  base,  glabrous  above,  tomentose  beneath; 
acorns,  sessile  or  short  pedunculate;  nut,  oval  or  obovoid.  11'  mm.  high, 
9-10  wide;  cup,  turbinate,  inclosing  less  than  one-half  of  the  nut. 

t  U.   serotina   Sargent.     Tree    K>  to   50   feet    high     2  to   •'■   f< 
ter  of  trunk,  with  close,  pale-gray  bark;   leaves,  oblonj   to  oblon 
vate,   acuminate,   variously   oblique   at   the    lias.',    coarsely   and    doubly 
crenulate-serrate,   membranaceous,   glabrous   and    lustrous    above,    pub 
erulous   below   on   the   prominent    midribs   and    veins;    Bowers,    p- 
autumnal,  racemose,  from  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  leavee  of  the  year, 
long-pedicellate;    calyx,    six-parted    at    the    base,    its    divisions   oblong 
obovate,  rounded  at  the  apex:  ovary,  sessile,  narrowed  below,  hi 
samaras  stipitate,  oblong  elliptical,  deeply  two-parted  at  the  apex,  cll- 
iate  on  the  margin;   seeds,  obovate,  raphe  conspicuous:    young  h 
stipules  and  bracts  unknown.     (Botanical  Gazette,  February,  1899 


0  Tennessee  Flora. 


CELTIS  L. 


Celtis  occidentalis  L.  Hackberry.  Maximum  height,  120 
feet  by  5  feet  diameter.  O.  S.  April,  May.  Fruit  matures  in 
September. 

C.  Mississippiensis  Bosc.  Shrubby,  or  a  smaller  tree,  as  the 
foregoing.  In  the  dry  glades  of  M.  Tenn.  April.  A  stunted 
form  is  Celtis  pumila  Pursh. 

MORACEJE  Lindl. 
MORUS  L. 

Morus  rubra  L.  Red  mulberry.  In  rich  soil.  O.  S.  April, 
May.     Fruit  ripe  in  June. 

M.  alba  L.  White  mulberry.  Formerly  used  for  feeding 
silk  worms,  and,  therefore,  imported.  Sparingly  escaped. 
May.     Fruit  matures  in  July,  August. 

TOXILON  Raf.     (Madura  Nut.) 

Toxilon  pomiferum  Raf.  A  small  tree  indigenous  to  the 
Transmississippi  region.  Here  planted  for  hedges,  and  occa- 
sionally spontaneous.     May,  June.     Fruit  matures  in  October. 

BROUSSONETIA  L'Her. 

Broussonetia  papyrifera  (L.)  Vent'.  A  small  dioecious  tree, 
native  of  the  South  Sea  Islands.  Cultivated  as  a  shade  tree  in 
"Europe  and  America.  All  those  in  Nashville,  with  a  single 
exception,  are  male.     May,  June.     Fruit  in  September. 

HUMULUS  L. 

Humulus  Lupulus  L.  Hop.  Sometimes  found  escaped 
from  cultivation.  July,  August.  Our  climate  is  not  congenial 
to  hop  culture.     M. 

CANNABIS  L. 

Cannabis  sativa  L.  Hemp.  In  waste  places,  escaped  from 
cultivation  or  scattered  from  bird  cages.  Native  of  Europe 
and  Asia.     July-September.     M. 

URTICACE.E  Reichenb. 
URTICA  L. 

Urtica  dioica  L.  Stinging  nettle.  Frequently  introduced, 
but  not  naturalized  in  Tennessee.     June,  July. 

U.  gracilis  Ait.  Along  fence  rows  in  the  mountains  of  E. 
Tenn.     May,  June. 

U.  urens  L.     The  burning  nettle.     In  waste  places  in  towns 


Tennessee   Flora.  71 

where  imported  goods  are  unpacked.      Does  nol   get   natural- 
ized.    April. 

U.  chaemaedryoides  Pursh.     In  thickets.     Frequent  around 

Nashville.     April. 

URTICASTRUM   Fabr.     (Laportea  Gaud.) 

Urticastrum  divaricatum  (  L.)  Kuntze.  Wood  nettle.  In 
rich  woods.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

ADICEA  Raf.     (Pilea  Lindl.) 

Adicea  pumila  (L.)  Raf.  Pilea  pumila  A.  Gray.  Rich 
weed.  In  moist  situations,  on  rotton  wood.  O.  S.  July-Sep- 
tember. 

BCEHMERIA  Jacq. 

Boehmeria  cylindrica  (L.)  Willd.  False  nettle.  In  moist 
soil.     O.  S.     July. 

B.  nivea  Hooker  &  Arnott.  Introduced  from  Eastern  Asia, 
and,  as  reported,  growing  well  in  YY.  Tenn. 

PARIETARIA  L., 

Parietaria     Pennsylvanica     Miihl.      Pellitory.      In      waste 

ground,  edge  of  woodlands.     O.  S.     June.  July. 

LORANTHACE^E  DC. 

PHORADENDRON  Nutt. 

Phoradendron  flavescens  (Pursh.)  Nutt.  American  mistle- 
toe. Parasitic  on  all  deciduous-leaved  trees.  May-July. 
Fruit  matures  in  December. 

SANTALACE.E  R.  Br. 

COMANDRA  Nutt. 

Comandra  umbellata  (L.)  Nutt.  Bastard  toad  flax.  Par- 
asitic on  roots  of  various  plants.  In  the  oak  barren^  of  Tulla- 
homa.     April-June. 

PYRULARIA  Michx. 

Pyrularia  pubera  Mich.  P.  oleifera  A.  Gray.  Oil  nut. 
Buffalo  nut.     Alleghany  and  Cumberland  Mts.     May.     Fruit 

ripe  in  August. 

BUCKLEYA  Torr. 

Buckleya  distichophylla  Torr.     Along  the  road  from  Wolf 

Creek  to  Hot  Springs,   X.   C.      Along   French    Broad    River. 
May. 


72  Tennessee   Flora. 

ARISTOLOCHIACEJE  Blume. 
ASARUM  L. 

Asarum  Canadense  L.  Wild  ginger.  Woodlands.  O.  S. 
Banks  of  Cumberland  River  at  Nashville.     April,  May.     M. 

A.  Virginicum  L.  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.  May, 
June. 

A.  macranthum  ( Shuttlw.)  Small.  Valley  of  Ocoee  River 
at  Parksville.     May. 

A.  arifolium  Michx.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     April-June. 

A.  Ruthii  Ash.     n.  sp.     Hiwassee  Valley.     A.  Ruth. 

ARISTOLOCHIA  L. 

Aristolochia  Serpentaria  L.  Virginia  snake  root.  Bluffs 
along  Cumberland  River,  Nashville.  E.  and  M.  Tenn.  June, 
July.     Fruit  in  September.     M. 

A.  macrophylla  Lam.  A.  Sipho.  L'Her.  Dutchman's  pipe. 
Alts,  of  E.  Tenn.  Along  Doe  River.  May,  June.  Fruit  ripe 
in  September. 

A.  tomentosa  Sims.  Valley  of  Cumberland  River.  May, 
June.     Fruit  in  August. 

POLYGONACE.E  Lindl. 
RUMEX  L. 

Rumex  Acetosella  L.  Sheep  sorrel.  In  dry  fields.  O.  S. 
May-September.     M. 

R.  verticillatus  L.  Swamp  dock.  Swamps  along  Cumber- 
land River.     July,  August. 

R.  altissimus  Wood.  R.  Britannica  Meisson.  Moist  ground 
or  ditches.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

R.  crispus  L.  Curled  dock.  Native  from  Europe.  O.  S. 
June-August.     M. 

R.  conglomeratus  Mun.  Waste  places.  Nashville.  May- 
July. 

R.  obtusifolius  L.  Bitter  dock.  O.  S.  Naturalized  from 
Europe.     June-August. 

FAGOPYRUM  Gaut. 

Fagopyrum  Fagopyrum  (L.)  Karst.  F.  esculentum  Moench. 
Buckwheat.  Frequently  cultivated  on  the  Cumberland  Pla- 
teau, and  p-ersistent  in  fields  after  cultivation.     June,  July. 

RHEUM  L. 

Rheum  palmatum  L.     Rhubarb. 

Rh.  compactum  L.,  with  their  varieties,  are  important  prod- 
ucts of  the  market  gardens. 


Tennessee   Flora. 

POLYGONUM  L. 
Polygonum  emersum    (Michx.)    Britton.     P.    Muhlenb 
S.Watson.     River  swamps.     Wild-goose  pond  near  Mitchell- 

ville.     July-September. 

P.  incarnatum  Ell.     In  wet  soil.     (").  S.      rune-Septeml 

P.   lapathifolium    L.     Waste   places.     I  >.   S.      [une 
ber. 

P.  Pennsylvanicum  L.     In  moist  soil.     O.  S.      Inlv-Septem- 
ber. 

P.  Persicaria  L.     Lady's  thumb.     Waste  and   wet   ground. 
O.  S.     June-October. 

P.  hydropiperoides  Michx.     Mild  water  pepper.     Inundated 
ground.     O.  S.     June-September. 

P.  Hydropiper  L.     Smart  weed.     In  moist  waste  places.    I  ». 
S.     July-September. 

P.  punctatum  Ell.     P.  acre  H.  B.  K.     Water  -mart  weed. 
Ponds  and  ditches.     O.  S.     June-October.      1/. 

P.  orientale  L.     Prince's  feather.     Escaped   from   gardens. 
O.  S.     August,  September. 

P.  Virginianum  L.     Virginia  knot  weed.     Thicket-.     I 
July-November. 

P.  aviculare  L.     Knot-door  weed.     In  all  yards  and  road- 
sides.    O.  S.     June-October. 

P.  erectum  L.     Frequently  in  company  with  P.  aviculare  L. 
O.  S.     July-September. 

P.   tenue    Mich.      Cumberland    Plateau.      Sewanee.      July- 
September. 

P.   Convolvulus   L.     Black  bind   weed.     Waste   and    culti- 
vated grounds.     Nashville.     July-September. 

P.  dumetorum  L.     Hedge  buckwheat.     Vicinity  of   Knox- 
ville.     July-September. 

P.  scandens  L.     Thickets.     O.  S.     August,  September. 

P.  cristatum  Engelm.    Climbing  high.    Harpeth  hills,  - 
of  Nashville.     August-October. 

P.    sagittatum    L.      Arrow-leaved    tear    thumb.      Swampy 
lands.     O.  S.     July-September. 

P.  arifolium  L.     Cumberland  Plateau.     September. 

BRUNNICHIA  Banks. 

Brunnichia  cirrhosa  Bank.     Grounds  of  the  Tennessee  Hos- 
pital for  the  Insane,  near  Nashville,  around  the  fountain. 
W.  Tenn.     May,  June. 

CHENOP<  >l)l.\(  "K.K    Dui 
CHENOPODIUM  L. 
Chenopodium  album  L.    Lamb's  quarters.     Pigweed.    Cii 


74  Tennessee  Flora. 

tivated  grounds.  O.  S.  June-September.  Naturalized  from 
Europe. 

Ch.  glaucum  L.  Goosefoot.  W.  Tenn.  June-September, 
Naturalized. 

Ch.  polyspermum  L.     Knoxville.     July-September. 

Ch.  Boscianum  Mag.  Fields  and  woods.  O.  S.  July-Sep- 
tember. 

Ch.  urbicum  L.  Streets  of  Chattanooga.  Adventive  from 
Europe.     June-September. 

Ch.  murale  L.  Naturalized  from  Europe.  In  towns  and 
settlements.     O.  S.     June-September. 

Ch.  Botrys  L.  Jerusalem  oak.  Cultivated  in  gardens  for 
its  fragrancy,  and  naturalized  from  Europe.  O.  S.  July-Sep- 
tember.    M. 

Ch.  ambrosioides  L.  Mexican  tea.  Naturalized  from  trop- 
ical America.  In  waste  grounds.  Brownsville,  W.  Tenn. 
August-October. 

Ch.  anthelminticum  L.  Wormseed.  Naturalized  from  Eu- 
rope.    Abundant.     O.  S.     M. 

BETA  L. 

Beta  vulgaris  L.  Beet.  Cultivated  in  numerous  varieties, 
including  the  sugar  beet.  A  native  of  Southern  Europe,  and 
already  cultivated  by  the  Romans. 

B.  Cicla  L.  White  or  Sicilian  beet,  native  of  Sicily,  includ- 
ing a  variety  called  Swiss  chard  beet,  are  favorite  vegetables, 
and  the  blanched  and  sliced  leaves  and  midribs  are  served  as 
salads. 

B.  maritima  L.  The  sea  beet  or  mangold  wurzel,  a  native 
of  Britain  and  Southern  Europe,  are  excellent  food  material 
for  cattle ;  and,  moreover,  from  the  brilliant  tints  of  their 
leaves,  very  decorative  plants. 

SPINACIA  L. 

Spinacia  oleracea  L.  Of  unknown  nativity;  is  an  esteemed, 
much-cultivated  pot  herb  ;  only  found  in  cultivation,  although 
cultivated  ove'r  three  hundred  years. 

AMARANTHACE,E  J.  St.  Hil. 
AMARANTHUS  L. 

Amaranthus  retroflexus  L.  Common  weed,  naturalized 
from  Europe.     August-October. 

A.  hybridus  L.  Naturalized  from  tropical  America.  O.  S. 
August-October. 

A.  spinosus  L.     Naturalized  from  tropical  America.     Very 


Tennessee   Flora.  ::, 

copious    in    the    streets    and    vacant    town    lots    in    Nashville. 
June-September. 

A.  hybridus  paniculatus  L.  and  A.  hypochondriacus  L. 
quent  in  gardens,  known  as  "  princess  feather;  "  often 

into  waste  grounds. 

ACNIDA  L. 

Acnida  tamariscina  (Ntitt.)  Wood.  Western  water  hemp. 
Var.  tuberculata  Mag.  Abounds  as  a  troublesome  weed  in 
fields  near  Nashville.     July-September. 

FRCEHLICHIA    Munch. 

Frcehlichia  Floridana  (Nutt.)  Mag.  According  to  Illus- 
trated Flora,  belongs  to  Tennessee.     June-September. 

IRESINE  P.  Br. 

Iresine  paniculata  (L.)  Kuntze.  I.  celosioides  L.  River 
banks  and  adjoining  fields  near  Nashville.  August,  Septem- 
ber. 

PHYTOLACCACE.E  Lindl. 

PHYTOLACCA  L. 

Phytolacca  decandra  L.  Poke  root.  Frequent  in  wood- 
lands and  cultivated  grounds.  O.  S.  July-October.  Berries 
ripe  in  October.     Also  called  "  inkberry." 

NYCTAGINACEJE  Lindl. 
ALLIONIA  Loefl.     (Oxybaphus  L'Her.) 

Allionia  albida  Watt.  Umbrella  wort.  Oxybaphus  albidus 
Chaisy.  Cliffs  along  Cumberland  River  at  Nashville.  May- 
August. 

A.  nyctaginea  Michx.     Oxybaphus  nyctagineus  Sweet.     \\ 
Tenn.     Guthrie.     May-August. 

AIZOACEJE  A.   Br. 

MULLUGO  L. 

Mollugo  verticillata  L.  Carpet  weed.  In  waste  and  culti- 
vated grounds,  a  weed.     O.  S.     May-September. 

PORTLL.U  .U'K.K  Reichenb. 
TALINUM  Adans. 

Talinum   teretifolium    Pursh.      Crevices    in    the    limestone 

rocks,  in  the  cedar  glades.      Frequent.     July.  August. 


76  Tennessee  Flora. 

CLAYTONIA  L. 

Claytonia  Virginica  L.  Spring  beauty.  Woods  and  pas- 
tures.    O.  S.     March-May. 

C.  Virginica  graminifolia.  Leaves  narrowly  linear,  elon- 
gated.    Hills  around  Nashville.     March,  April. 

C.  Caroliniana  Michx.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     May,  June. 

PORTULACA  L. 

Portulaca  oleracea  L.  Purslane.  Common  garden  weed. 
O.  S.     June,  July. 

P.  retusa  Engelm.  Among  the  former  and  in  the  cedar 
glades.     June. 

P.  pilosa  L.     Xow  and  then  in  E.  Tenn.,  Meigs  County. 

P.  grandiflora  Hook.  Garden  portulaca.  Escaped  from 
cultivation.     Native  of  South  x\merica.     July. 

TETRAGONIA  DC. 

Tetragonia  expansa  Fenzel.  New  Holland  spinach.  Culti- 
vated only  for  the  table.     A  native  of  Tasmania. 

CARYOPHYLLACEJE  Reichenb. 

AGROSTEMMA  L. 

Agrostemma  Githago  L.  Corn  cockle.  In  grain  fields  and 
waste  places.     O.  S.     July-September. 

SILENE  L. 

Silene  stellata  (L.)  Aiton.  Starry  champion.  Open  wood- 
lands.    O.  S.     June,  July. 

S.  Caroliniana  Walt.  S.  Pennsylvania  Michx.  Cumber- 
land and  Alleghany  Mts.     April-June. 

S.  Virginica  Link.  Fire  pink.  Sunny  hillsides.  O.  S. 
May,  June. 

S.  rotundifolia  Nutt.  Catchfly.  High  cliffs  of  Cumberland 
Mts.     Lookout  Mt.     June,  July. 

S.  regia  Sims.  Lake  Ottose,  near  Knoxville.  A.  Ruth. 
July. 

S.  antirrhina  L.  Waste  places,  rocky  soil.  O.  S.  April- 
June. 

S.  ovata  Pursh.  Lemon's  Gap,  Cocke  County.  T.  H.  Kear- 
ney.    June. 

S.  alba  Miihl.  White  champion.  Near  Wartburg,  Morgan 
County.     June. 

SAPONARIA  L. 

Saponaria  officinalis  L.  Soap  wort.  O.  S.  Naturalized 
from  Europe.     July,  August.     M. 


Tennessee   Flora.  :: 

DIANTHUS  L. 

Dianthus  Armeria  L.  Pink.  River  banks  al  Marion,  S.  W. 
Va.     Advantitious  from  Europe.     J.  K.  Small. 

ALSINE  L.     (Stellaria  L.) 

Alsine    media    L.     Stellaria    media    Cyr.     Common    chick 
weed.     Waste  places.    O.  S.    Naturalized  from   Europe. 
nary-December.     M. 

A.  pubera  (Michx.)  Britton.    Stellaria  pubera  Michx.    I 
chick  weed.     Rich  woodlands.     O.  S.     April.  May. 

A.  longifolia  (Miihl.)  Britton.  Stellaria  longifolia  Miihl. 
Stick  wood.     Low  grounds,  Kingston  Springs.     Ma  v. 

A.  fontinalis  (Short  &  Peter)  Britton.  In  we1  places,  in  the 
glades.     Frequent  in  the  vicinity  of  Nashville.     April,  Maw 

A.  prostrata.  Stellaria  prostrata  Baldw.  Knoxville.  A. 
Ruth. 

CERASTIUM  L. 

Cerastium  viscosum  L.  Mouse-ear  chiek  weed.  Meadows 
and  waste  places.     0.-&.     April. 

C.  vulgatum  L.  Pastures  and  roadsides.  O.  S.  March- 
May. 

C.     longipedunculatum     Miihl.      C.     nutans     Raf.       M 
grounds  and  hillsides.     O.  S.     May.  June. 

C.  arvense  L.     Knoxville.      A.  Ruth. 

C.  oblongifolium  Torr.  C.  arvense  oblongifolium  Holt.  & 
Britton.  Moist,  shady  banks,  growing  in  tufts.  Nashville. 
April,  May. 

SAGINA  L. 

Sagina  decumbens  (Ell.)  Torrey  &  Gray.  Pearl  wort. 
Damp  and  dry  soil.  On  pavements.  Nashville,  Knoxville. 
March-May. 

ARENARIA  L.      (Alsine  W'ahlA 

Arenaria  serpyllifolia  L.     Sandwood.     Dry,  rocky  ground. 

O.  S.     March,  April. 

*A.  patula  Michx.  A.  Pitcheri  Nutt.  Limestone  regions 
of  M  Tenn      Nashville,  Knoxville.     April,  May. 

A.  Groenlandica  (  Retz.)  Spreng.     A.  glabra  Michx.      I  I 


•A.  patula  Michx.     Type,  as  I   understand   it.   has  corolla 
to  15  mm.  and  ripe  capsule  exceeding  calyx  lobefl  by  one-third. 
is  a  variety  occurring  in  the  same  region  with  expanded  Ho 
5-7  mm.,  other  proportions  equal  to  former,  and  the  testa  marked  wit] 
the  same  beautiful  design  like  the  former  A.  patula  tenella. 


IS         *  Tennessee  Flora. 

est  points  of  Alleghany  and  Cumberland  Mts.     June-Septem- 
ber. 

A.  diffusa  Ell.  Bluffs  on  Mill  Creek.  Copses  near  Pu- 
laski.    June. 

PARONYCHIA  Adans. 

Paronychia  argyrocoma  (Michx.)  Nutt.'  Whitlow  wort. 
Higher  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.  Black  Mts.,  above 
Piney.     Mrs.  J.  Bennett.     July. 

P.  dichotoma  (L.)  Nutt.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.,  near  Ducktown. 
July-October. 

ANYCHIA  Michx. 

Anychia  dichtotoma  Michx.  Chick  weed.  Dry  woods  and 
thickets      O.  S.     May-September. 

A.  Canadensis  (L.)'B.  S.  P.  Anychia  capillacea  DC.  With 
the  former,  and  often  on  the  same  square  foot  of  ground.  Hills 
south  of  Nashville.     O.  S.     June-September. 

SCLERANTHUS  L. 

Scleranthus  annuus  L.  Knewel.  Waste  grounds.  Nash- 
ville.    March-September. 

NYMPHAEACE.^  DC. 

CABOMBA  Aubl. 

Cabomba  Caroliniana  A.  Gray.  Carolina  water  shield.  Cy- 
press swamps,  W.  Tenn.     May-August. 

BRASENIA  Schreb. 

Brasenia  purpurea  (Michx.)  Casp.  B.  peltata  Pursh.  Wa- 
ter shield.  Lagoons  along  Tennessee  River.  Ponds  in  Sum- 
ner County.     May-August. 

NYMPH^A.  L. 

Nymphaea  advena  Soland.  Nuphar  advena  R.  Br.  Yellow 
pond  lily.  In  ponds  and  slow  streams.  O.  S.  April-Septem- 
ber.    M. 

CASTALIA  Salisb. 

Castalia  odorata  (Dryand.)  Woodf.  &  Wood.  White  water 
lily.  In  ponds  and  lagoons  along  rivers.  O.  S.  Pond  in 
lunatic  asylum  near  Nashville.     June-September.     M. 

NELUMBO  Adans. 
Nelumbo  lutea   (Willd.)    Pers.     American  Nelumbo.     Wa- 


Tennessee   Flora. 


ter  chinquapin.    Lagoons  and  ponds.  M.  and  \Y.  Tenn.    Nash- 
ville.    Very  frequent.     June-September. 

CERATOPHYLLACE^flE  A.   (iray. 

Ceratophyllum  demersum    L.      Hornwort      In    ponds   and 

stagnant  water.     O.  S.     June.  July. 

MAGNOLIACEJE  J.  St.  Hil. 
MAGNOLIA  L. 

Magnolia  Fraseri  Walt.  Slopes  of  the  Smoky  Mts.  fune. 
July. 

M.  macrophylla  Michx.  Large-leaved  umbrella  tree.  Alle- 
ghanies.     Cumberland  Mts.,  near  Rugby.     J.  F.  James. 

M.  tripetala  L.  Umbrella  tree.  Cumberland  and  Alle- 
ghany Mts.     June. 

M.  Virginiana  L.  M.  glauca  L.  Sweet  bay.  Madison 
County,  W.  Tenn.     S.  M.  Bain.     May.  June. 

M.  acuminata  L.  Cucumber  tree.  Rich  soil,  river  bottom-. 
O.  S.     May,  June. 

M.  grandiflora  L.     In  cultivation  only. 

LIRIODENDRON  L. 

Liriodendron    Tulipifera    L.     Yellow    poplar.     O.    S.      V 
taining  to  a  height  of  from  ioo  to  190  feet  by  from  4  to  u  feel 
diameter.     Most  frequent  in  the   Mississippi  bottoms,   where 
it  grows  to  greatest  size.     May,  June.     .1/. 

ANONACEJE  DC. 

ASIMINA  Adans. 

Asimina  triloba  (L.)  Dunal.  Papaw.  A  shrub  or  tree 
reaching  from  20  to  40  feet  in  the  river  bottoms.  Flowering 
in  March ;  fruit  maturing  in  October. 

RANUNCULACE.E  Juss. 

HYDRASTIS  Ellis. 

Hydrastis  Canadensis  L.  Golden  seal.  Yellow  puccoon. 
Open  woodlands  and  rich  soil.     <  >.  S.     Various  places  around 

Nashville.     April.  May.     M. 

CALTHA  L. 

Caltha  palustris   L.      Marsh   marigold.      Boggy   mount 
meadows.     Ducktown.     April-June. 


80  Tennessee   Flora. 

COPTIS  Salisb. 

Coptis  trifolia  (L.)  Salisb.  Gold  thread.  Higher  Allegha- 
nies.  Summit  of  Thimderhead.  At  the  edge  of  laurel  thick- 
ets. Verv  abundant.  Piney  Creek,  in  Rhea  County.  Mrs. 
Lydia  A.  "Bennett.     May-July.     31. 

XANTHORRHIZA  L'Her. 

Xanthorrhiza  apiifolia  L'Her.  Yellow  root.  Shady  banks 
of  mountain  streams  in  the  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Alts. 
April,  May.     31. 

ACTJEA.  L. 

Actaea  rubra  (Ait.)  Willd.  Red  baneberry.  Moist  woods. 
O.  S.     April-June.     M. 

A.  alba  (L.)  Mill.  White  baneberry.  Same  range  with  the 
former.     O.  S.     April-June.     31. 

CIMICIFUGA  L. 

Cimicifuga  racemosa  (L.)  Nutt.  Black  snake  root.  Woods. 
O.  S.     June- August.     M. 

C.  cordifolia  Pursh.  Bluffs  along  Tennessee  River  at  Knox- 
ville.  A.  Ruth.  T.  H.  Kearney.  C.  rubifolia  Kearney  n.  sp. 
seems  to  be  identical  with  cordifolia  Pursh. 

C.  Americana  Michx.  American  bugbane.  Big  Frog  Mts. 
Roane  Mt.     Chickering.     August,  September. 

AQUILEGIA  L. 

Aquilegia  Canadensis  L.  Columbine.  Rocky  woods.  O. 
S.     April-June. 

A.  coccinea  Small,     ined.     Rich  soil.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

DELPHINIUM  L. 

Delphinium  urceolatum  Jacq.  D.  exaltatum  Ait.  Tall  lark- 
spur.    Roane  Mt.     J.  W\  Chickering.     July,  August. 

D.  Consolida  L.  Knight's  spur.  Larkspur.  Waste  grounds," 
old  fields.     O.  S.     Naturalized  from  Europe.     July. 

D.  Carolinianum  Walter.  D.  azureum  Michx.  Rocky 
places.     Frequent  about  Nashville.     May,  June. 

D.  tricorne  Michx.  Edge  of  woodlands  in  rich  soil.  O.  S. 
April,  May. 

ACONITUM  L. 

Aconitum  uncinatum  L.  Monk's  hood.  Lake  Otosee,  near 
Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     June. 

A.  reclinatum  A.  Grav.  Wolf's  bane.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn. 
July. 


Tennessee   Flora.  8] 

ANEMONE  L. 

Anemone  Caroliniana  Walt.    Cedar  glades  of  M.  Tenn.    La 
vergne.     April,  A  [ay. 

A.  cylindrica  A.  Gray.    Alleghanies,  near  Ducktown.    June- 
August, 

A.  Virginiana  L.     Woods.     O.  S.     June-August. 

A.  trifolia  L.     Little    Frog   Mi.,  with   Convallaria  majalis. 
April. 

A.  quinquefolia  L,     A.  nemorosa  var.  quinquefolia  A.  G 
A.  nemorosa  of  eleventh  edition  of  Tennessee   Flora.     Wind 
flower.     Paradise  Ridge,  Davidson  County.     April.  Ma  v. 

HEPATICA  L. 

Hepatica   Hepatica    (L.)    Karst.      Liverwort.      In    the    Big 
Frog  Mts.,  E.  Tenn.,  it  occurs  with  obtuse  and  acute  li 
from  the  same  root.     March.     .1/. 

H.   acuta    (Pursh.)    Britton.      Hills   and    woodlands   oi    M. 

Tenn.     March,  April. 

SYNDESMON  Hofffflg. 

Syndesmon    thalictroides     (L.)     Hoffmg.      Rue    Anemone 
Anemonella  thalictroides  Spach.     O.  S.     March,  April. 

CLEMATIS  L.     (Anemonella  Spach.) 

Clematis  Virginiana  L.     Virgin's  bower.     O.  S.     July.  Au- 
gust. 

C.  Addisonii  Britton.     Cliffs  on   Cumberland   River   above 
Nashville.     Sequatchie  Valley.     Mrs.  Lydia  S.  Bennett. 

C.  ochroleuca  Ait.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     Roanoke.  S.  W.  Va. 
J.  K.  Small.     May,  June. 

C.  Viorna  L.     Leather  flower.     O.  S.     May- July. 

C.  Gattingeri  J.  K.  Small,     n.  sp.     Bluffs  on  Cumberland 
River  above  Nashville.     June. 

C.  reticulata  Walter.     Bluffs  of  Cumberland  River  at  N 
ville.     May,  June. 

ATRAGENE  L. 

Atragene  Viticella  L.  Since  many  years  cultivated  in 
dens  in  Nashville,  and  hence  escaped  into  hedges.  Ma> 
Viticella  L. 

MYOSURUS  L. 

Myosurus  minimus   L.     Mouse   tail.     In    raoi'St    pltt 

racetrack,  Nashville.     April. 

TRAUTVETTERIA   F.  &   M. 
Trautvetteria    Carolinensis    Walt.     T.    palmata     F.    &    M. 


82  Tennessee  Flora. 

Throughout  the  Alleghanies  and  at  the  Piney  Falls,  in  the 
Cumberland  Mts.     Mrs.  L.  F.  Bennett.     June,  July. 

RANUNCULUS  L. 

Ranunculus  hispidus  Michx.  Water  crowfoot.  Low 
.grounds,  five  miles  from  Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

R.  pusillus  Poir.  Ditches  and  waste  grounds.  O.  S.  April, 
May. 

R.  oblongifolius  Ell.  Damp  ground.  Tullahoma.  Para- 
dise Ridge,  Davidson  County.     April. 

R.  obtusiusculus  Raf.  R.  alismsefolius  A.  Gray.  Ponds 
along  Cumberland  River.     June-August. 

R.  abortivus  L.     O.  S.     April-June. 

R.  sceleratus  L.     In  ditches,  E.  Tenn.     April-August. 

R.  recurvatus  Poir.  Hooked  crowfoot.  In  woods.  O.  S. 
April-June. 

R.  bulbosus  L.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     May-July. 

R.   septentrionalis   Poir.     Marsh  buttercup.     O.   S.     April- 

July- 

R.  fascicularis  Miihl.  Fields  and  pastures.  O.  S.  March- 
May. 

R.  parviflorus  L.  Naturalized  from  Europe.  O.  S.  April- 
July. 

BATRACHIUM  S.  F.  Gray.     (Ranunculus  L.) 

Batrachium  trichophyllum  (Chaix.)  Bossh.  Ranunculus 
aqUatilis  var.  trichophyllus  DC.  Ponds  along  Cumberland 
and  Tennessee  Rivers.     June-September. 

B.  divaricatum  (Schrank.)  Wimmer.  Ranunculus  divari- 
catus  Schrank.  In  pools  and  on  the  mud  on  river  banks.  O. 
S.     June,  July. 

THALICTRUM  L. 

Thalictrum  clavatum  DC.  Meadow  rue.  Cumberland 
and  Alleghany  Mts.,  in  irrigated  places.     May,  June.     . 

T.  dioicum  L.  In  woods  in  the  mountains  and  on  the  high 
lands.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

T.  caulophylloides  T-  K.  Small.  Cove  Mt.  Prof.  Ruth. 
July. 

T.  coriaceum  (Britt.)  Small.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  Ducktown. 
White  Rock  Mt.,  S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small.     May,  June. 

T.  purpurascens  L.  T.  purpurascens  var.  ceriferum  Aust. 
O.  S.     July. 

T.  polygamum  Miihl.  T.  Cornuti  T.  &  G.  Tall  meadow 
rue.  Moist  woodlands.  O.  S.  John  Overton's  farm,  Nash- 
ville.    June-August. 


Tennessee   Flora. 

BERBERIDACEJE  T.  &  G. 
BERBERIS  L. 

Berberis  Canadensis   Mill.     Barberry.     Waters  of   Holston 

River.     J.  K.  Small.     May,  June. 

B.  Aquifolium  Pursh.     Mahonia  repens   Don.     Frequently 

cultivated   in  gardens.     Native  of  Rocky    Mts.     April.    May. 
Escaped. 

CAULOPHYLLUM  Michx. 

Caulophyllum     thalictroides     (L.)     Michx.       Blue     cohosh. 

Papoose  root.     Rich  woodlands.     O.  S.     April,  Ma  v.      1/ 

DIPHYLLEIA  Michx. 

Diphylleia  cymosa  Michx.  Umbrella  leaf.  Smoky  Mts. 
Roane  Mt.     Checkering.     May,  June. 

JEFFERSONIA  Bart. 

Jeffersonia  diphylla   (L.)    Pers.     Twin  leaf.     Rocky  w 1 

lands.     O.  S.     Also  called  '"rheumatism  root."     April,  May. 

PODOPHYLLUM  L. 

Podophyllum  peltatum  L.      May  apple.      Wild  mandrake. 

Low  woods.     O.  S.     May.     M. 

MENISPERMACEiE  DC. 

CALICOCARPUM  Nutt. 

Calicocarpum  Lyoni  (Pursh.)  Nutt.  Cupseed.  River  bot- 
toms, climbing  high.     May,  June.     Fruit  ripe  in  August. 

CEBATHA  Forsk.     (Cocculus  DC.) 

Cebatha  Carolina  (L.)  Britton.  Cocculus  Carolinus  DC 
Dry  uplands,  as  well  as  river  bottoms.  O.  S.  June  Berries 
ripe  in  September. 

MENISPERMUM   L. 

Menispermum  Canadense  L,  Moon  seed.  Bottom  land-. 
O.  S.     June,  July.     .1/. 

CALYCANTHACK.K  Lind^ 

BUTTNERIA  Duham.     (Calycanthus  L.) 

Buttneria  florida   (L.)    Kearnev.      Calycanthus   floridus    I. 
Strawberry  shrub.     Harpeth  hills,  south  ni  Nashville.     King- 
ston Springs.     Also  frequently  cultivated  in  gardens.     April 
August. 


84  Tennessee  Flora. 

B.  fertilis  (Walt.)  Kearney.  Calycanthus  laevigatus  Willd. 
Calycanthus  glaucus  Willd.  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts. 
Fruit  poisonous  to  sheep.     August,  September. 

LAURACKdE  Lindl. 

SASSAFRAS  Nees  &  Eberm. 

Sassafras  Sassafras  (L.)  Karst.  Sassafras  officinale  Nees. 
Sassafras.  A  small  to  a  large  tree.  On  the  islands  of  Hi- 
wassee  and  Tennessee  Rivers,  it  reaches  an  altitude  of  from 
ioo  to  120  feet  by  5  feet  diameter.  April,  May.  Fruit  ma- 
tures in  July,  August.     M. 

MALAPCENA  Adans.     (Tetranthera  Nees.) 

Malapoenna  geniculata  (Walt.)  Coulter.  Tetranthera  gen- 
iculata  Nees.  Pond  spice.  In  swamps  on  Cumberland  Mts. 
East  of  Ducktown,  in  North  Carolina.     March,  April. 

BENZOIN  Fabr.     (Laurus  L.) 

Benzoin  Benzoin  (L.)  Coulter.  Spice  bush.  O.  S.  Banks 
of  Cumberland  River  at  Nashville.  March,  April.  Fruit  ma- 
tures in  August,  September.     M. 

B.  melissaefolium  (Walt.)  Nees.  Not  so  frequent  like  the 
former.     Cumberland  Plateau.     March. 

PAPAVERACE^S  B.  Juss. 
PAP  AVER  L. 

Papaver  somniferum  L.  Occasionally  on  waste  grounds,  es- 
caped from  gardens.     Tune-August.     Source  of  opium. 

P.  dubium  L.  Waste  grounds.  Unfrequent.  Adventitious 
from  Europe.     Summer. 

ARGEMONE  L. 

Argemone  Mexicana  L.  Prickly  poppy.  In  some  streets 
of  Nashville.     June-September,. 

A.  alba  Lestib.  Is  perhaps  only  a  variety  of  the  former,  and 
grows  promiscuously  in  same  locality.     June,  July. 

SANGUINARIA  L. 

Sanguinaria  Canadensis  L.  Blood  root.  In  rich  wood- 
lands.    O.  S.     April,  May.     M. 

STYLOPHORUM  Nutt. 

Stylophorum  diphyllum  (Michx.)  Nutt.  Celandine  poppy. 
Woods,  vicinity  of  Nashville.     March-May. 


Tennessee   Flora. 

CHELIDONIUM  L. 

Chelidonium  majus  L.     Celandine.     Adventitious  from 
rope.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     .1/. 

BICUCULLA  Adans.     (Dicentra   Benin.) 

Bicuculla  Cucullaria  (L.)  Millsp.    Dicentra  Cucullaria  Torr. 
Dutchman's  breeches.     In  leaf   mold.     Shady   ravines,      rlar 
peth  hills,  near  Nashville.     April,  May. 

B.     Canadensis     (Goldie.)     Mills]).      Dicentra    Canad< 
Walp.     Squirrel  corn.     Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.      1/ 

B.  eximia    (Kerr.)     Millsp.     Dicentra    eximia    Torr.      Do< 
River,  Carter  County.      Hiwassee  Valley.      A.   Ruth.       May- 
October. 

ADLUMIA  Raf. 

Adlumia  fungosa  (Ait.)  Greene.  A.  cirrhosa  Raf.  Climb- 
ing fumitory.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     Cranberry.     June-*  >ct< 

CAPNOIDES  Adans.     (Corydalis  Vent.) 

Capnoides     sempervirens     (L.)     Bork.      Corydalis     gla 
Pursh.     Ravines  on   Doe   River,   Carter  County.     April-Sep- 
tember. 

C.  flavulum  (Raf.)  Kuntze.     Corydalis  flavula  Raf.     Rocky 

woods.     O.  S.     May,  June. 

C.    micranthum    Engelm.      Corydalis    micrantha    A.    I 
Woods.     O.  S.     May,  June. 

FUMARIA  L. 

Fumaria   officinalis   L.     Fumitory.     An    abundant    weed    in 
fields  in  Europe,  sometimes  appearing  here  in  vegetable 
dens.     June-August. 

CRUCTFER.E  Bernh.     Jus 
LEPIDIUM  L. 

Lepidium  sativum  L.     Garden  pepper  grass.     Escaped 

gardens.     May- August. 

L.  Virginicum  L.  Wild  pepper  grass.  In  fields  and  along 
roadsides.     O.  S.     May-November. 

L.  apetalum  Willd.  Naturalized  from  Europe.  Here  and 
there.     O.  S.     May-July. 

CORONOPUS  C.aertn. 

Coronopus   Coronopus    (L.)    Karst.     Senebiera   Coron 
Poir.     Vacant  town  lots.   Memphis.     Dr.    Egeling.     Natural- 
ized from  Europe.     Summer. 


86  Tennessee  Flora. 


THLASPI  L. 


Thlaspi  arvense  L.  Field  penny  cress.  In  the  grounds  of 
market  gardens,  introduced  with  seeds.     Summer. 

SISYMBRIUM  L. 

Sisymbrium  officinale  L.  Hedge  mustard.  Waste  places. 
O.  S.     Introduced  from  Europe.     May-November. 

SINAPIS  L. 

Sinapis  alba  L.  White  mustard.  Escaped  from  cultiva- 
tion.    Native  of  Europe.     Summer. 

BRASSICA  L. 

Brassica  nigra  (L.)  Koch.  Black  mustard.  In  cultivation 
and  escaped. 

B.  arvensis  (L.)  B.  S.  P.  Sinapis  arvensis  L.  Charlock. 
Wild  mustard. 

B.  campestris  L.  Turnip.  Cultivated  in  many  varieties. 
Summer. 

B.  Rapa  L.  var.  depressa.     Flat-top  turnip.     In  cultivation. 

B.  Napus  L.  Rape.  Formerly  cultivated  for  the  oil  of  the 
seeds,  but  now  abandoned. 

B.  oleracea  L.  Cabbage.  Cultivated  in  many  varieties. 
Summer. 

RAPHANUS  L. 

Raphanus  sativus  L.  Garden  radish.  Cultivated  in  many 
varieties,  and  sometimes  spontaneous.  Native  of  Asia.  June- 
October. 

R.  Raphanistrum  L.  Appears  sometimes  as  a  garden  weed,, 
introduced  with  other  seeds.     "Jointed  charlock."     Summer. 

IODANTHUS  Torr.  &  Gray. 

Iodanthus  pinnatifidus  (Michx.)  Steudal.  Thelipadium 
pinnatifidum  S.  Watson.  Damp  woodlands.  O.  S.  Mayr 
June. 

RORIPA  Scop.     (Nasturtium  R.  Br.) 

Roripa  palustris  (L.)  Bess.  Nasturtium  palustre  DC. 
March  water  cress.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     May-August. 

R.  sessiliflora  (Nutt.)  A.  S.  Hitchcock.  Nasturtium  sessili- 
florum  Nutt.     Wet  meadows  and  ditches.     O.  S.     April-June. 

R.  Nasturtium  (L.)  Rusby.  Nasturtium  officinale  R.  Br. 
Water  cress.  In  brooks  and  streams.  O.  S.  Also  sometimes 
cultivated.     Naturalized  from  Europe.     April-November.     M. 

R.  Armoracia  (L.)  A.  S.  Hitchcock.     Nasturtium  Armora- 


Tennessee   Flora. 

cia    Fries.     Horse-radish.     Escaped    from    gardens    into    low 
grounds.     Adventive  from  Europe.     Summer. 

R.  Americana  (A.  Gray)  Britton.  Nasturtium  lacustre  A. 
Gray.     Swamps    along   Tennessee    and    Cumberland    Ri 

Summer. 

CARDAMINE  L. 

Cardamine  Pennsylvanica  Miihl.  Bitter  cress.  On  wet 
lands.     O.  S.     April-June. 

C.  arenicola  Britt.     Moist,  sandy  soil.     In  Tennessee 
cording-  to  Illustrated  Flora.     March,  April. 

C.  parviflora  L.  C.  hirsuta  var.  parviflora  A.  Gray.  Drj 
woodlands.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

*C.  Clematitis  Shuttlw.  Summits  of  Smoky  Mts.  May- 
July. 

C.  purpurea  (Torr.)  Britton.  Arabis  rhomt>oidea  var.  pur- 
purea  Torr.     Hiwassee  Valley.     A.  Ruth.     April,  May. 

C.  bulbosa  (Schreb.)  B.  S.  P.  C.  rhomboidea  DC  Low. 
wet  ground.     O.  S.     April. 

C.  rotundifolia  Michx.  Near  Marion.  S.  \\  .  \  a.  I.  K. 
Small.     May,  June. 

DENTARIA  L. 

Dentaria  laciniata  Miihl.  Pepper  root.  In  moist,  rich 
woods.     O.  S.     March-May. 

D.  diphylla  Michx.  Shady  ravines.  O.  S.  Nashville. 
Banks  of  Cumberland  River.     April. 

D.  heterophylla  Nutt.     Woodlands.     O.  S.     April. 

D.  multifida  Miihl.     E.  Tenn.     Cave  Spring.     March,  April. 

LEAVENWORTHIA  Torr. 

Leavenworthia  uniflora  (Michx.)  Britton.  L.  Michauxii 
Torr.  Open,  moist  grounds.  Nashville.  Cedar  glades. 
April,  May. 

L.  torulosa  A.  Gray.     Cedar  glades,  with  the  former.    April, 

Mav. 
fL.  stylosa  A.  Gray.     Cedar  glades  at  Lavergne.     All  three 

often  in  close  proximity.     April.  May. 

*C    Clematitis   Shuttlw.     Smooth;    earliest    Leaves    reniform,    d< 
entire-  lower  stem  leaves  broadly  triiobed,  the  middle  lobe  la 
form-cordate,   or   angularly-trilobed;    upper   ones,   oblong,   tl 
petioles  with  an  arrow-shaped  appendage  at   the  be 
loose;    petals,   white,   spatulate-obovate,   twice   as    Long   as   the 
silique,  narrow-linear,  compressed,  tipped  with  the  long  Btyle. 

TL.  stylosa  Gray.    Slender,  stemless;  Bilique,  oval    »r  broadly  oblong 
(2  inches  long),  plain,  surmounted   l>>    :i  Blender  Btyle  fully  I 
in  length;    only  from  three  to  six  seeds,  orbicular,  distinctly    nv 
embryo  as  in  the  preceding;  petals,  pure  golden-yellow. 


88  Tennessee  Flora. 

LESQUERELLA  S.  Watson. 

Lesquerella  globosa  (Dew.)  S.  Watson.  Vesicaria  Shortii 
Torr.  &  Gray.  Rising-  Sun  Bluff,  fourteen  miles  below  Nash- 
ville, on  Cumberland  River.     April,  May. 

L.  Lescurii  A.  Gray-  Covering-  whole  fields  and  glades  in 
the  vicinity  of  Nashville.     April,  May. 

BURSA  Weber.     (Capsella  Med.) 

Bursa  Bursa-pastoris  (L.)  Britton.  Thlaspi  Bursa-pastoris 
L.  Shepherd's  purse.  A  common  weed  in  fields  and  waste 
places.     O.  S.     March-November.     M. 

CAMELINA  Crantz. 

Camelina  sativa  (L.)  Crantz.  False  flax.  Naturalized 
from  Europe,  where  it  is  cultivated  for  the  fine  oil  yielded  by 
its  seed.     Scattering-ly  O.  S. 

DRABA  L. 

Draba  verna  L.  Whitlaw  grass.  In  fields  and  pastures. 
O.  S.     February-May. 

D.  Caroliniana  Walt.     Glades  of  M.  Term.     February-April. 

D.  ramosissima  Desv.  Cliffs  on  Ocoee  River,  Polk  County. 
With  Saxifraga  Tennessiensis.     April,  May. 

D.  brachycarpa  Nutt.  Cedar  glades  of  M.  Tenn.  March, 
April. 

SOPHIA  Adans. 

Sophia  Sophia  (L.)  Britton.  Sisymbrium  Sophia  L.  In 
fields  and  gardens.     Naturalized  from  Europe.     June,  July. 

S.  pinnata  (Walt.)  Britton.  Sisymbrium  canescens  Nutt. 
Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

STENOPHRAGMA  Celak.      (Sisymbrium  Gray.) 

Stenophragma  Thaliana  (L.)  Celak.  Sisymbrium  Thaliana 
Gay.  Fields.  O.  S.  Frequent  in  vicinity  of  Nashville.  In- 
troduced from  Europe.     April. 

ARABIS  L. 

Arabis  Virginica  (L.)  Trelease.  A.  Ludoviciana  Meyer. 
Rock  cress.     Fields  and  pastures.     O.  S.     March-May. 

A.  lyrata  L.  Rocky  lands.  O.  S.  Nashville.  Banks  of 
Cumberland  River.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

A.  dentata  Torr.  &  Gray.     Woodlands.     O.  S.     April-June. 

A.  patens  Sulliv.  Bluffs  on  Ocoee  River.  Knoxville.  A. 
Ruth. 


Tennessee   Flora. 

A.  hirsuta  (L.)  Scop.     Cumberland  Mts.     May-September. 

A.  laevigata  (Miihl.)  Poir.  On  limestone  cliffs  along  Cum- 
berland River.     April.  May. 

A.  Canadensis   L.     Sickle  pod.     Rocky  woodlands 
April,  May. 

ERYSIMUM  L. 

Erysimum  cheiranthoides  L.  Treakle  mustard.  Knoxville. 
A.  Ruth.     June-August. 

KONIGAAdans.     (Alyssum  L.) 

Koniga  maritima  (L.)  R.  Br.  Alyssum  maritimum  Lam. 
Sweet  alyssum.  Escaped  from  gardens  along  fences.  Nash- 
ville.    Summer. 

BERTEROA  DC.     (Alyssum  L.) 
Berteroa   incana    (L.)    DC.     Alyssum    incanum    L.      Intro- 
duced and  first  observed  in  my  garden  in   Nashville  in  June. 
1897.     June. 

HESPERIS  L. 

Hesperis    matronalis    L.     Dame's    gilliflower.     Introduced 

along  a  garden  fence  on  Belmont  Park,  Nashville.     May- June. 

CAPPARIDACE^E  Lindl. 
CLEOME  L. 

Cleome  spinosa  DC.     C.  pungens  Willd.     Spider  flower.     In 

waste   places,   river  banks.     O.   S.     Adventive   from   tropical 
America.     Summer. 

POLANISIA  Raf. 

Polanisia  graveolens  Raf.  Along  the  track  of  the  Nashville, 
Chattanooga  and  St.  Louis  Railway,  in  Dickson  and  Benton 
Counties.     Foot  of  Fort  Negley,  South  Nashville.     Summer. 

Capparis  spinosa  L.  The  caper  ought  to  be  introduced  in 
cultivation,  as  it  grows  well  under  slight  protection,     I  lult. 

SARACENIACE^  Fa  Pyl. 

Saracenia  purpurea  L.  Pitcher  plant.  Low  grounds  along 
Mississippi,  Tennessee,  and  Duck  Rivers.      Vpril. 

PODOSTEMACEjE  Lindl. 

Podostemon  abrotanoides   Nutt.      In    all    mountain   streams 
of  the  Alleghany  Mts.     Submerged  and  on  rocks.     Jul) 
tember. 

P.  ceratophyllum  Michx.  River  weed.  Streams  in  the 
Cumberland  Mts.     July-September. 


90  Tennessee  Flora. 

CRASSULACE.E  DC. 
SEDUM  L. 

Sedum  roseum  (L.)  Scop.  S.  Rhodiola  DC.  Rose  root. 
Roane  Mt.     Chickering. 

S.  Telephium  L.  Orpine.  In  a  field  near  Bellvidere,  Frank- 
lin County.     Escaped  from  cultivation.     June. 

S.  telephioides  Michx.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  Chickering. 
June. 

S.  acre  L.  Wall  pepper.  Fountain  Head,  Sumner  County, 
near  a  cabin.  Adventitious,  or  escaped  from  cultivation.  Na- 
tive of  Europe.     June. 

S.  pulchellum  Michx.  Rocky  and  moist  places,  growing 
gregariously  in  patches,  covering  many  acres.  Prominently 
in  the  cedar  glades.     May. 

S.  ternatum  Michx.  Wild  stone  crop.  Shady,  rocky 
places,  and  among  the  grass.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

S.  Nevii  A.  Gray.  On  rocks  throughout  the  Alleghany  Mts. 
May,  June. 

DIAMORPHA  Nutt. 

Diamorpha  pusilla  Nutt.  On  sandy  flats,  and  on  rocks  in 
the  Cumberland  Mts.  Abundant  in  Sewanee  and  on  Lookout 
Mt.,  covering  the  surface  in  "  Rock  City."     May. 

PENTHORUM  L. 

Penthorum  sedoides  L.  Virginia  stone  crop.  Pools  and 
ditches.     O.  S.     July-September. 

SAXIFRAGACEJE  Dumort. 
ASTILBE  Hamilt. 

Astilbe  biternata  (Vent.)  Britton.  As.  decandra  D.  Don. 
False  goat's  beard.  Near  water  courses  in  the  mountains  of 
E.  Tenn.     June. 

SAXIFRAGA  L. 

Saxifraga  micranthidifolia  (Haw.)  B.  S.  P.  S.  erosa  Pursh. 
Rocks  on  Wolf  Creek.     Roane  Mt.     Chickering.     May,  June. 

S.  Virginiensis  Michx.     Rocky  places.     O.  S.     March-June. 

S.  Tennessiensis  J.  K.  Small.  Rocky  bluffs  on  Tennessee 
River,  above  Knoxville.  A.  Ruth.  T.  H.  Kinney.  In  the 
gorge  of  the  Ocoee  River,  above  Parksville.     April,  May. 

S.  Michauxii  Britton.  S.  leucanthemifolia  Michx.  Roane 
Mt.     Chickering.     Big  Frog  Mt.     June. 

S.  Grayana  Britton.  S.  Caroliniana  A.  Gray.  Walker  Mt., 
S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small.     June,  July. 


Tennessee   Flora.  .  01 

S.   Careyana   A.   Gray.     Roane    Ml.     Chickering.     Will 

Canby.     July,  August. 

THEROFON  Raf.     (Boykinia  Nutt.) 

Therofon  aconitifolium  (Nutt.)  Millsp.  Boykinia  aconiti- 
folia  Nutt.  Throughout  the  Alleghanies,  (  >coee  and  I toe  Riv- 
ers, and  in  the  Cumberland  Mts.  Piney  Falls.  Mr-.  Lydia 
Bennett.     July. 

TIARELLA  L. 

Tiarella  cordifolia  L.  False  mitrewort.  E.  Tenn.  April, 
May. 

HEUCHERA  L. 

Heuchera  Rugelii  Shutthv.  Piney  Fall>.  Cumberland  Mts. 
Mrs.  Lydia  Bennett.     July-September. 

H.  villosa  Michx.  Limestone  rocks.  M.  Tenn.  Frequent. 
June-September. 

H.  Americana  L.     Alumroot.     Vicinity  of  Nashville.      May. 

H.  pubescens  Pursh.  Sewanee.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  May, 
June. 

H.  macrorhiza  Small,  n.  sp.  Frequent  on  limestone  bluffs 
along  Cumberland  River  and  all  the  way  along  Louisville  and 
Nashville  Railroad  to  Pulaski.     June,  Jul}'. 

MITELLA  L. 

Mitella  diphylla  L.  Mitrewort.  Cumberland  and  Alle- 
ghany Mts.     April,  May. 

CHRYSOSPLENIUM  L. 

Chrysosplenium  Americanum  Schwein.     Irrigated  plac< 

the  Frog  Mts.     March-June. 

PARNASSIA  L. 

Parnassia  Caroliniana  Michx.  Cumberland  and  Alleghany 
Mts.     June-August. 

P.  asarifolia  Vent.  Big  Frog  Mts.,  E.  Tenn.  July-Septem- 
ber. 

HYDRANGEA  L. 

Hydrangea  arborescens  L.     Wild  hydrangea.     Highlan 

M.  Tenn.  and  river  bluffs.     June.  July. 

H.  arborescens  Kanawhana  Millsp.  II  arborescens  var. 
cordata  Gray.     H.  cinera  J.  EC.  Small.     Bluffs  on  i  River, 

above  Parksville.     June-September. 

H.  radiata  Walt.  Cataract  near  Tullahoma,  and  from  there 
on  up  and  through  the  Cumberland  Mts. 

H.  quercifolia  Bartram.     Tullahoma.     Barnes. 


92  Tennessee  Flora. 


DECUMARIA  L. 


Decumaria  barbara  L.  Damp  situations  throughout  the  Al- 
leghanies,  clinging  to  rocks  and  bark  of  trees.     May,  June. 

PHILADELPHIA  L. 

Philadelphus  coronarius  L.  Mock  orange.  Frequently  cul- 
tivated in  gardens,  and  hence  found  in  deserted  homesteads. 
May,  June. 

Ph.  hirsutus  Xutt.  Bluffs  on  Cumberland  River.  Mts.  of 
E.  Tenn.,  Cocke  County.     Kearney.     May. 

Ph.  inodorus  L.  Baker's  Station  to  Ridgetop,  Davidson 
County.     May. 

Ph.  grandiflorus  Willd.  Knox  County.  A.  Ruth.  April, 
May. 

ITEA  L. 

Itea  Virginica  L.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  and  cypress  swamps  of 
W.  Tenn.     May,  June. 

GROSSULARIACE^E  Dumort. 
RIBES  L. 

Ribes  Cynosbati  L.  Dogberry.  At  the  edge  of  a  cedar  glade 
near  Fosterville.  Marion,  S.  W.  Va.  J.  K.  Small.  April- 
June. 

R.  gracile  Michx.  Missouri  gooseberry.  Dry,  rocky  soil. 
Fide  Illustrated  Flora.     May. 

R.  rotundifolium  Michx.  Summit  of  Roane  and  Thunder- 
head  Mts.     May-July. 

R.  prostratum  L'Her.  Fetid  currant.  Summit  of  White 
Top  Mts.,  S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small.     May,  June. 

R.  rubrum  L.     Red  currant.     Cultivated,  and  sometimes  es- 
caped and  seemingly  spontaneous.     Marion,  S.  W.  Va. 
Small.     April. 

R.  aureum  Pursh.  Buffalo  currant.  Has  been  for  a  long 
time  in  cultivation,  and  sometimes  indicates  old  garden  plots. 
May. 

R.  Uva-crispa  L.  R.  Grossularia  L.  Garden  gooseberry. 
Cultivated  in  gardens  and  temporarily  existing  in  fence  rows. 
Red  currants  and  gooseberries  do  not  prosper  in  Tennessee. 

HAMAMELIDACE.E  Lindl. 

HAMAMELIS  L. 

Hamamelis  Virginiana  L.  Witch-hazel.  A  shrub,  or  some- 
times a  small  tree.     On  the  summit  of  Thunderhead  (altitude, 


Tennessee   Flora. 

6,000  feet)   I  found  a  regular  grown  tree,  25  feet  high  1 
inches  diameter  of  trunk.     Flowers,  Christmas  tiirn 

in  October. 

LIQUIDAMBAR  L. 

Liquidambar  Styraciflua  L.     Sweetgum.     Red  gum.      I. 
forest  tree  growing  in  wet  or  swampy  lands.     V<  r\  large,  and 
frequent  in  the  Tennessee  and   Mississippi   bottoms.      April, 

May. 

PLATANACEJE  Lindl. 
PLATANUS  L. 

Platanus  occidentalis  L.     Buttonwood.     Plane  tree.     S 

more.     Attains  the  widest  spread  of  crown  of  any  of  our  tim- 
ber trees.     Reaches  an  altitude  of  150  feet  ami   diamet 
trunk  of  15  feet  in  our  river  bottoms.     May. 

ROSACEA  B.  Juss. 

OPULASTER  Kuntze.     (Neillia  Brew.) 

Opulaster  opulifolius  Kuntze.  Neillia  opulifolia.  Brewer 
&  Watson.  Nine  bark.  Rocky  places  along  Cumberland 
River.     June. 

SPIRAEA  L. 

Spiraea  salicifolia  L.     Meadow  sweet.     Grand  View,   R 
County.     Miller's  Cove,  E.  Tenn.     June- August. 

S.  tomentosa  L.  Hardhack.  Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.,  in 
boggy  localities.     Fountain  Head,  Sumner  County.     July. 

S.  corymbosa  L.     S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small.     July. 

S.  Virginiana  Britton.  Little  River,  E.  Tenn.  A.  Ruth. 
June. 

ARUNCUS  Adan<. 

Aruncus  Aruncus  (L.)  Karst.     Spiraea  Aruncti-  1. 
beard.     Moist    woodlands.     O.    S.     Nashville,    above    water- 
works.    May-July. 

PORTERANTHUS  Britt.     (Gillenia  Mcench.) 

Porteranthus    trifoliatus    (L.)     Britton.     Gillenia    trifol 
M<rnch.     Indian  physic.     Common  in  E.  Tenn.     May,  June. 
P.    stipulatus    (Miihl.)     Britton.     Prevailing   in    M.    Tenn 

woods.     June,  July. 

RUBUS 1 

Rubus  odoratus  L.     High  mountains  of  E.  Tenn.     B 

Mt.     Vallev  of  Ocoee  River,  above  Parksville.     June. 


94  Tennessee  Flora. 

R.  strigosus  Michx.  Wild  red  raspberry.  Woods  and 
copses.     O.  S.     May,  June. 

R.  occidentalis  L.     Black  raspberry.     O.  S. 

R.  villosus  Ait.  Common  blackberry.  Bush  blackberry. 
A  white-fruited  variety  is  found  near  Cleveland,  E.  Tenn. 

R.  Alleghanensis  Port.  R.  villosus  var.  montanus  Port. 
Mountains  around  Ducktown,  E.  Tenn. 

R.  cuneifolius  Pursh.     Gravelly  hills.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

R.  hispidus  L.     Swamp  blackberry.     Lookout  Mt.     June. 

R.  trivialis  Michx.     Sandy  soils.     O.  S.     March-May. 

R.  Baileyanus  Britt.  R.  villosus  var.  humifusus.  Torr.  & 
Gray.     R.  Britt.     Hills  around  Marion,  S.  W.  Va.    J.  K.  Small. 

R.  Canadensis  L.  Dewberry.  Dry  soil.  O.  S.  April, 
May.     Fruit  ripe  in  July. 

FRAGARIA  L. 

Fragaria  Virginiana  Duchesne.  Scarlet  strawberry.  Dry 
uplands.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

F.  vesca  L.  European  wood  strawberry.  Naturalized 
from  Europe.     Dry  woodlands.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

DUCHESNEA  J.  E.  Smith.     (Fragaria  Andr.) 

Duchesnea  Indica  (And.)  Focke.  Waste  places.  Intro- 
duced from  India.     Old  graveyard  in  Nashville.     June,  July. 

POTENTILLA  L. 

Potentilla  arguta  Pursh.  Banks  of  Cumberland  River,  above 
waterworks,  at  Nashville.     June. 

P.  Monspelliensis  L.  P.  Norvegica  L.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn. 
Knoxville.  A.  Ruth.  Foot  of  hills  on  White's  Creek,  David- 
son County.     July,  August. 

P.  paradoxa  Nutt.  P.  supina  Michx.  W.  Tenn.  Johnson- 
ville  and  Hickman.     June-September. 

P.  fruticosa  L.  Shrubbby  cinquefoil.  Near  Ducktown,  in 
Turtletown,  Cherokee  County,  N.  C.     June-September. 

P.  tridentalis  Ait.     Big  Frog  Mts.,  E.  Tenn.     June-August. 

P.  Canadensis  L.     Five  finger.     O.  S.     July-September. 

WALDSTEINIA  Willd. 

Waldsteinia  fragarioides  (Willd.)  Tratt.  Alts,  of  E.  Tenn. 
Ocoee  Valley.     May,  June. 

*W.  parviflora  Small.  Fide  Illustrated  Flora,  Appendix. 
Ocoee  Valley.     June,  July. 

*W.  parviflora  Small.  Perennial  by  horizontal  rootstocks;  villose 
hirsute  or  glabrous  in  age;    leaves,  basal,  from  5  to  12  inches  high; 


Tennessee   Flora. 

GEUM  L. 

Geum  radiatum   Michx.     Avens.     Roane    Mt.     Chickering. 

July,  August. 

G.  vernum   (Raf.)  Torr.   &   Gray.     Shaded  ground.     I  I 
March,  April. 

G.  Canadense  Jacq.  ( i.  Album  Gmel.  White-  Avens. 
Shaded  places.     O.  S.     June-August. 

G.  Virginianum  L.  Mountains  and  highlands.  O.  S.  May- 
July. 

G.  flavum  (Port.)  Bicknell.  G.  (  anadense  Jacq.  \  ar.  fla- 
vum  Kritt.  Woods  along  Wolf  Creek,  Cocke  County.  T.  II. 
Kearney.  Waters  of  Holston  River,  S.  W.  Va.  J.  K.  Small. 
June. 

ULMARIA  Hill. 

Ulmaria  rubra  Hill.  Spiraea  lobata  Gronov.  Queen  of  the 
prairie.  In  a  moist  meadow,  Cave  Spring,  Roane  County. 
June,  July. 

U.  Ulmaria   (L.)   Bernhart.     Spiraea  Ulmaria  L.     Es< 
from  gardens.     Seen  but  one  time  near  Nashville. 

ALCHEMILLA  L. 

Alchemilla  arvensis  (L.)  Scop.  Argentill.  Fields  near 
Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

AGRIMONIA  L. 

Agrimonia  hirsuta  (Miihl.)  Bicknell.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  Tall 
agrimony. 

A.  striata  Michx.     A.  parvirlora  DC.     Glades  of   M.  Tenn. 

July. 

Agrimonia   mollis    (T.    &   G.)    Britton.     Mts.    oi    E.     Tenn. 
Slopes  of  White  Top  Mt..  S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small. 
A.  parviflora  Soland.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

SANGUISORBA  L. 

Sanguisorba  Canadensis  L.     Poterium  Canadense  A.  Gray. 
American    burnet.     Along    Doe    River,    E.    Tenn.     Hiv. 
Valley.     A.  Ruth. 

petioles,  much  longer  than  the  blades,  usually  much  Ie88  densely  pub- 
escent  than  the  scapes;  leaflets,  cuneate.  ovate,  or  broadly  rhomboidal, 
from  lv,  to  3  inches  long,  coarsely  and  Irregularly  crenate  or  lobed; 
scapes,  erect,  solitary,  or  several  together,  commonly  Bhorter  than  the 
leaves,  corymbose  at  top:  calyx,  usually  hairy,  the  tube  broadly  tur- 
binate, from  lv4  to  1':,  lines  long,  the  segments  triangular  lanceolate 
or  lanceolate-acuminate,  often  Bhorter  than  the  tube;  petals,  linear- 
oblong  or  narrowly  elliptical,  shorter  than  the  calyx  segments  or  barely 
longer;  achenes,  obovoid,  \\.,  lines  long. 


-96  Tennessee  Flora. 

ROSA  L. 

Rosa  setigera  Michx.  Prairie  rose.  Abundant  in  the  glades 
of  M.  Tenn. 

R.  setigera  tomentosa  Gray.  With  the  former.  O.  S.  May- 
July. 

R.  Carolina  L.  Swamp  rose.  Low  grounds  and  river 
swamps.     O.  S.     June-August. 

R.  humilis  Marsh.  Pasture  rose.  Rocky  slopes  and  glades. 
O.  S.     May-July. 

R.  humilis  lucida  Ehrh.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

R.  canina  L.  Dog  rose.  E.  Tenn.  Vicinity  of  Marion,  S. 
W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small.     June. 

R.  rubiginosa  L.  Sweet  brier.  Roadsides  and  old  fields. 
O.  S.     Naturalized  from  Europe.     June,  July. 

R.  bracteata  Wendel.  Old  homesteads  and  hedges.  No- 
lensville  Pike,  six  miles  south  of  Nashville.     June. 

R.  pimpinellifolia  L.  Old  homestead,  Davidson  County, 
Colonel  Prosser's  farm.  Introduced  by  early  settlers.  June, 
July. 

SORBUS  L. 

Sorbus  Americana  Marsh.  American  mountain  ash.  Sum- 
mit of  Thunderhead.     Smoky  Mts.     Small  tree.     May,  June. 

PYRUS  L. 

Pyrus  communis  L.  Pear.  In  cultivation  only.  In  many 
varieties.     Native  of  Eurasia.     April. 

MALUS  Juss. 

Malus  angustifolia  (Ait.)  Michx.  Pyrus  angustifolia  Ait. 
Narrow-leaved  crab  apple.  Small  tree,  from  15  to  20  feet 
high.     O.  S.     In  limestone  regions.     March-May. 

M.  coronaria  L.  Pyrus  coronaria  L.  American  crab  apple. 
Upper  E.  Tenn.  South  fork  of  Holston  River.  J.  K.  Small. 
Cultivated  in  some  gardens.  March.  Fruit  matures  in  Sep- 
tember. 

Malus  Malus  (L.)  Britton.  Pyrus  Malus  L.  Apple.  Na- 
tive of  Europe  and  Asia.  Sometimes  spontaneous,  and  culti- 
vated in  many  varieties. 

ARONIA  Pers. 

Aronia  arbutifolia  (L.)  Ell.  Pyrus  arbutifolia  L.  Red  coke- 
berry.  Mountain  bogs  in  the  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts. 
March-May. 

A.  nigra  (Willd.)  Britton.  Black  cokeberry.  Laurel  thick- 
ets in  the  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.  Sewanee.  March- 
June. 


Tennessee    Flora. 

CYDONIA  L. 

Cydonia  vulgaris  Pers.  Quince.  Native  of  E.  Europe 
the  Levante.     ]n  cultivation  only.     April. 

C.  Japonica  Pers.  Pyrus  Japonica  L.  Frequentl)  cultn 
as  an  ornamental  shrub.      Sometimes   found   as  a  strag 

Fruit  very  fragrant.     February,   March.      Fruit  in  S< 
October. 

AMELANCHIER  Med. 

Amelanchier   Canadensis    (  L.)    Med.     Service    berry. 

tending  from  the  high  mountains  to  the  valleys  of  E.  Tenn. 
March-May.     Fruit  in  June,  July. 

A.  Botryapium  (L.  f.)  DE.     A.  Canadensis  var.  oblongifolia. 
T.  &  G.     Same  range  with  the  former.     April,  May. 

CRATAEGUS.* 

Crataegus  Crus  Galli  L.     Cockspur  thorn.     ().  S.     May. 

C.   punctata   Jacq.     C.   tomentosa   var.   punctata    A.    <  rray. 
Summit  of  Roane  Mt. 

C.  cordata  Ait.     Washington  thorn.     Rocky  glades  around 
Nashville.     May. 

C.  viridis  L.     C.  arborescens  Ell.     April.     Jackson.     Hoi 
low  Rock. 

C.  rotundifolia  Bork.     C.  glandulosa  Willd.      Marion.  S.  W. 
Va.     J.  K.  Small.     April-June. 

C.  mollis  (T.  &  G.)  Soheele.  C.  tomentosa  var.  in- 
Gray.     From  15  to  20  feet  high.     Nashville.     April.  May. 

C.  tomentosa  L.     Nashville.     Tree  from  12  to  15  feet  high. 
May,  June. 

C.  tomentosa  Chapmani  Beadle.     M.  Tenn. 

C.  uniflora  Moench.      Dwarf  thorn.      Wolf  Creek.      T.    H 
Kearney.     Lookout  Mt.     Knoxville.     A.   Ruth.     April. 

fC.  Biltmoreana  Beadle.     E.  Tenn.     Shrub  from   1  to  5  feel 
high.     Legit  Beadle. 

*The  genus  Crataegus  has  been  revised  from  notes  re  m  C. 

D.  Beadle,  curator  of  the  Biltmore  Herbarium,  as  represented   in  said 
collection. 

fC.    Biltmoreana    Beadle.     Flowers   appearing    when    the 
nearly   fully   grown   in   3-7   flowered   corymbs,    with    lanceol 
nately  glandular  caducous  bracts  on  strict,  pubescent    p 
pubescent,  obconic;   petals,  broadly  ©bovate  or  orbicular;   stamen 
shorter   than   the    petals;    styles.    3-5:    fruit    maturing    in    September. 
October;  depressed  globose,  bluntly  angled,  10-16  nun.  broad,  10-lJ  mm. 
high,  containing  3-5  nutlets;  leaves.  2-5  cm.  wide,  3-10  cm.  Long,  Includ- 
ing the  petioles;   ovate,  acute  at  the  apex,  wedge-shaped  at   the 
and  prolonged  into  a   winged  <>r  margined   petioli 
cised  or  slightly  5-9  lobed  and  sharply  and  Irregularly 
the   base;     spines,    stout,    2-5    cm.    long,    slightly    curved.      (Vide    Bot 
Gazette,  No.  6,  December.  1899.) 


98  Tennessee  Flora. 

*C.  Sargenti  Beadle.  S.  E.  Tenn.  Shrub  from  2  to  6  feet 
high.     April. 

fC.  Boyntoni  Beadle.  Tree  or  shrub.  C.  rotundifolia. 
Bork.  E.  Tenn.  Marion,  S.  W.  Va.  J.  K.  Small.  Small 
tree.     April. 

xC.  Austro-Montana  Beadle.  Cumberland  Mts.  E.  and  M. 
Tenn.     May. 

§C.  Harbisoni  Beadle.  Discovered  by  T.  G.  Harbison  on 
the  hills  near  Nashville,  1899.  May.  Charlotte  Pike,  1886. 
collected  by  the  author. 

**C.  Mohri  Beadle.  Tree,  6-10  m.  tall.  Southern  part  of 
M.  Tenn.     May. 

*C.  Sargenti  Beadle.  Shrub  or  small  tree,  branches  spreading 
armed  with  straight  or  curved  spines,  2-7  cm.  long,  flowers  appearing 
when  the  leaves  are  almost  fully  grown,  in  generally  three-flowered 
corymbs;  calyx,  obconic,  pubescent;  segments,  glandular-serrate;  di- 
visions of  corolla  nearly  round;  stamens,  normally  20;  pistils,  3-5; 
fruit  mature  at  middle  September;  globose,  10-12  mm.  high,  orange  yel- 
low; nutlets,  3-5;  leaves,  thin,  glabrous,  with  5-7  pairs  prominent 
veins;  ovate,  acute  at  apex,  rounded  or  abruptly  contracted  at  base, 
in  a  margined  or  winged  petiole,  irregularly  and  doubly  serrate,  and 
incisely  lobed;   stipules,  linear  or  linear-lanceolate. 

|C.  Boyntoni  Beadle.  Shrub  or  small  tree,  flowering  with  the 
expanded  leaves,  produced  in  short  glandular-bracteate  4-10  flowered 
corymbs;  calyx,  obconic,  smooth;  divisions,  acute,  glandular,  serrate; 
petals,  nearly  orbicular,  9-12  mm.  diameter;  stamens,  10;  pistils,  3-5; 
fruit,  dull,  yellowish  green,  depressed  globose,  angled,  10-14  mm. 
high,  ripening  in  October;  nutlets,  3-5;  leaves,  subcoriaceous  with  age, 
glabrous,  with  4-7  pairs  of  veins,  broadly  ovate,  acute  at  apex,  rounded 
at  the  base,  sharply  serrate,  serratures  minutely  gland-tipped;  stipules, 
linear. 

+  C.  Austro-Montana  Beadle.  A  straggling  shrub.  1-4  m.  in  height; 
branches,  unarmed;  branchlets,  pilose-pubescent  or  tomentose;  flow- 
ers, large  in  3-5  flowered  corymbs;  calyx,  broad,  obconic,  pubescent; 
divisions,  lanceolate;  stamens,  10;  pistils,  3-5;  fruit  (which  ripens  at 
end  of  September),  large;  globose,  12-15  mm.  in  diameter,  bright  red, 
containing  3-5  nutlets;  leaves,  orbicular,  3.5-12  mm.  long,  including 
the  pubescent  petioles,  pubescent  on  both  surfaces,  with  5-7  pairs  of 
veins. 

£C.  Harbisoni  Beadle.  Tree,  5-8  m.  high;  leaves,  obovate  or  oval, 
3-12  cm.  long,  including  the  petiole;  acute  at  apex,  roughly  pubescent 
on  the  upper  side,  densely  coated  on  the  lower  surface,  dark  green 
and  lustrous  above,  pale  below;  borders,  doubly  and  irregularly  ser- 
rate; calyx,  obconic,  pubescent;  stamens,  normally  20;  pistils,  3-5; 
fruit,  large,  red;  globose,  10-13  mm.  diameter;  nutlets,  3-5;  spines  of 
the  branches,  3-6  cm.  long. 

**C.  Mohri  Beadle.  Leaves,  cuneate-obovate.  2-7  cm.  lone,  includ- 
ing the  petioles;  acute  or  rounded  at  the  apex  and  contracted  below 
into  a  winged  petiole;  sharply  serrate  to  the  middle;  entire,  or  nearly 
so,  at  the  base;  stipules,  linear,  caducous;  flowers  in  many-flowered 
corymbs,  which  are  pubescent  at  flowering  time;  calyx,  narrow,  ob- 
conic; divisions  of  corolla,  round,  ovate,  with  undulate  or  erose  bor- 
ders; stamens,  20;  fruit  globose,  8-9  mm.  diameter;   nutlets,  3-5. 


Tennessee   Flora. 

llsides.     M. 

Flowei 

Dry     hills. 
SC.  straminea  Beadle.     Shrub  r  m.  high.     Lookoul  Mt.  and 

adjacent  valley  of  E.  Tenn.     April,  May. 

**C.  tetrica  Beadle.     Hills  about  Nashville.     May. 

tiC.  Buckleyi  Beadle.    Tree  8  m.  high,  1-2  dm.  diameter.    E. 
Tenn.     May. 


*c. 

Aprica    Beadle. 

Large 

shrub.     Sunny 

Tenn. 

April. 

tc. 

rubella    Beadle. 

Shrub. 

1-4  meter   high. 

April. 

Lookout  Mt. 

tc. 

sinistra    Beadle. 

[ned. 

West    Nashville 

*C.  Aprica  Beadle.  Leaves,  thin,  obovate-orbicular.  1.6-7  cm.  long, 
including  petiole,  dentate  or  crenate-dentate  and  conspicuously  gland- 
ular, more  or  less  lobed  near  the  acute  apex;  flowers,  borne  In  M 
flowered,  pubescent,  bracteate  corymbs;  calyx,  obconir,  pubescent;  pet- 
als, broader  than  long;  stamens,  10;  styles,  3-5;  fruit,  globose,  M4 
mm.  diameter;  nutlets,  3-5. 

fC.  rubella  Beadle.  Branchlets  numerous,  armed  with  Blender, 
straight,  or  slightly  curved  spines,  1.5-4  cm.  long;  leaves,  oval  or  ODO- 
vate,  3-9  cm.  long,  including  the  petiole;  sharply  and  doubly  serrate 
to  near  the  base;  prolonged  into  a  margined,  sparsely-glandular  petiole; 
flowers  in  simple  3-6  flowered  glandular  bracteate  corymbs;  calyx, 
obconic;  petals,  rather  broader  than  long,  8-12  mm.  wide;  stamens, 
normally  10;  styles.  2-4,  rarely  5;  fruit,  red.  pyriform,  or  oval,  12-15 
mm.  long,  ripening  middle  of  September;  nutlets,  2-3,  rarely  i -.".. 

+  C.  sinistra  Beadle.  Small  tree;  leaves,  obovate,  scarcely,  if  at  all. 
glandular;  stipules,  linear,  not  exceeding  1  cm.  in  length:  flowers,  in 
7-15  flowered  corymbs;  calyx,  obconic,  pilose;  petals,  nearly  orbicular; 
the  claw  at  the  base,  short;  stamens,  10;  styles.  1-2;  fruit,  oval.  6-8  mm. 
wide,  reddish,  ripening  in  November;  nutlets,  1-2;  flowers,  May. 

<SC.  straminea  Beadle.  Branchlets  armed  with  Blender  Bpines; 
leaves,  oval,  round-ovate,  acute  at  the  apex,  acutely  contracted  or 
rounded  at  the  base,  acutely  incised  or  slightly  5-9  lobed.  sharply  and 
irregularly  serrate  except  at  the  extreme  base:  serratures,  glandular 
apiculate,  2.5-10  cm.  long,  including  the  petiole,  with  3-5  pairs  of  reins; 
flowers,  in  glandular-bracteate  3-6  flowered  corymbs;  calyx,  obconic; 
petals,  nearly  orbicular,  6-10  mm.  diameter;  stamens,  normally  10; 
fruit,  subglobose  or  pyriform,  10-13  mm.  high,  yellow  or  greenisll  yel- 
low, ripening  middle  of  September;   nutlets,  3-5. 

**C.   tetrica  Beadle.     A  tree  5-7   m.   tall,   with    Bhorl    trunk;    Bpines, 
very  stout,  1-5.5  cm.  long,  curved  or  straight;    Btipules,   lin< 
the  longer  shoot  lineate;  leaves,  broadly  oval.  3-7  cm.  long,  with  p< 
rounded  at  the  apex,  sharply  and  irregularly   serrate;    corymba 
flowered;  calyx,  obconic;  petals,  orbicular:  stamens,  10;  styles,  8;  fruit, 
globose,  7  mm.  by  1  cm.  diameter. 

ffC.  Buckleyi.  Beadle.     Leaves,  glabroua  at  maturity,  ultimafc 
coriaceous,  ovate  or  round-ovate,  and  in<  is.ly  lobed, 
narrowed  at  the  base,  and  prolonged  into  a  margined  petiole;    flo 
in  3-7  flowreed  corymbs;  calyx,  obconic;  petals,  orbicular;   Btamen 
styles,  3-5;    fruit,  subglobose.  angled,  red,  8-12  nun.  diameter,   Witl 
nutlets.     (Biltmore  Bot.  Studies.  Vol.  I..  No.  1.) 


100  Tennessee  Flora. 

*C.  Margaretta  Ashe.  Nashville,  Charlotte  Pike.  April, 
May. 

fC.  macrosperma  Ashe.     Frequent  on  Lookout  Mt. 

JGattingeri  Ashe.     Nashville. 

C.  collina  Chapm.  Banks  of  Cumberland  River,  near  wa- 
terworks. 

C.  Vailliae  Britton.  Wolf  Creek,  Cocke  County.  J.  H. 
Kearney. 

C.  populifolia  Elliott.     Lebanon  Pike,  Nashville.     Cowan. 

COTONEASTER  Med. 

Cotoneaster  Pyracantha  (L.)  Spach.  Evergreen  thorn. 
Thickets  near  Hyde's  Ferry,  Nashville.     Introduced.     May. 

DRUPACE^E  DC. 
PRUNUS   L. 

Prunus  Americana  Marsh.  Wild  yellow  or  red  plum.  O. 
S.     April,  May.     Fruit  ripe  in  July,  August.. 

P.  hortulana  Bailey.  Wild  goose  plum.  O.  S.  Formerly 
believed  to  be  a  hybrid  between  P.  Americana  and  Chickasa. 
April,  May. 

*0.  Margaretta  Ashe.  Small  tree,  4-5  m.  high,  sometimes  a  shrub; 
branches,  flexuous  geniculate,  thornless,  or  only  sparingly  beset  with 
short,  slender  thorns;  leaves,  glandless  membranaceous,  bright  green 
both  sides,  broadly  rhombic  to  broader  than  long,  with  3-6  prominent, 
straight  veins,  obtusely  serrate,  with  3-5  pairs  shallow  lobes;  flowers, 
in  7-12  flowered  corymbs;  petals  .orbicular;  stamens.  15-20;  styles.  2-3: 
fruit,  1  cm.  diameter,  nearly  round,  reddish  or  orange. 

tC.  macrosperma  Ashe.  (Journal  Elisha  Mitchell  Soc,  Decem- 
ber, 1900.)  Small  tree  5-7  m.  in  height,  with  wide-spreading  branches, 
armed  with  numerous  short,  very  stout,  1-2  cm.  long,  red  brown  to 
black  thorns;  leaves,  membranaceous,  but  firm,  dark  green  above,  paler 
and  sparingly  glaucous  or  whitish  beneath,  deltoid  or  broadly  oval  at 
the  apex,  rounded  or  subcordate,  with  a  narrow  sinus  at  base,  3-6  cm. 
long,  2-5  wide,  sharply  serrate  to  the  base;  flowers,  in  4-9  flowered  sim- 
ple corymbs  on  slender  petioles;  divisions  of  calyx,  lanceolate,  short, 
3-5  mm.  long,  persistent  and  coloring  with  the  fruit;  styles,  3-4;  sta- 
mens, 5-10;  fruit,  12-18  mm.  diameter;  flesh,  thick  and  mealy,  falling 
In  September;  nutlets,  3-5. 

+Gattingeri  Ashe.  (Journal  Elisha  Mitchell  Soc,  December,  1900.) 
Twigs,  glabrous,  dark  purple  brown,  sparingly  glaucous,  armed  with 
numerous  thorns,  3-4  cm.  long;  leaves,  glabrous,  dark  green  above,  paler 
beneath,  the  blades  oblong,  ovate,  or  deltoid  in  outline,  2-7  cm.  long, 
2-5  cm.  wide,  rounded,  truncate,  or  subcordate  at  base,  attenuate  at  the 
apex,  finely  but  acuminately  serrate,  generally  with  3-5  prominent 
lobes;  petioles,  slender,  roughened  above,  with  1-2  pairs  of  glands; 
corymbs,  few-flowered,  the  pedicels  slender  and  glabrous,  1-1.5  cm. 
long;  calyx  lobes,  short,  triangular,  glabrous;  stamens,  20;  fruit,  dark 
red,  sparingly  pruinose,  globular,  8-11  mm.  thick,  generally  capped  by 
the  stalked  calyx  lobes,  persistent  until  after  the  foliage  has  fallen. 


Tennessee  Flora.  101 

P.    angustifolia    Marsh.      P.    Chickasa    Michx.      Chicl 
plum.     Very   frequent   in   the   limestone   basin   of   M.   Tenn. 

April.     Fruit  ripe  in  May,  June. 

P.  gracilis   Engelm   &   Gray.     In   Tennessee) 
Gray's  Manual. 

P.  spinosa   L.      Sloe  blackthorn.      Hillsboro    Pike,   twelve 
miles  from  Nashville.     Escaped  into  the   woods  from  an  or 
chard.     Adventitious  from  Europe.     April. 

P.  Cerasus  L.  Sour  cherry.  In  cultivation,  and  sometimes 
escaping  into  open  grounds.  Native  of  Europe.  April,  May. 
Fruit  in  June,  July. 

P.  avium  L.  Sweet  cherry.  Also  cultivated  like  the 
former  in  several  varieties,  and  wandering  into  open  grounds. 
Tennessee  is  at  the  Southern  limit  of  the  natural  zone  of  both 
species ;  and,  therefore,  the  fruit  is  inferior. 

P.  domestica  L.     Damson.     Cultivated  only. 

P.  Pennsylvanica  L.  fil.  Pin  or  pigeon  cherry.  E.  Tenn. 
Principally  in  the  higher  mountains.  On  Clingman  Dome  a 
form  is  found  with  narrow,  lanceolate  leaves.  April-June. 
The  latter  is  perhaps  P.  serotina  movtana  Small. 

P.  Armeniaca  AVilld.  Apricot.  Native  of  Persia.  In  cul- 
tivation only. 

P.  Virginiana  L.  Chock  cherry.  Cumberland  and  Alle- 
ghany Mts.     April,  May. 

P.  serotina  Ehrh.  Wild  black  cherry.  Large  tree,  often 
from  50  to  70  feet  high.  AYood  used  in  cabinetmaking.  May. 
Fruit  ripe  in  August.     M. 

AMYGDALUS  L. 

Amygdalus  Persica  L.  Peach.  Frequently  escaped  from 
cultivation.  To  be  considered  naturalized.  April.  Fruit  in 
August-October. 

A.  communis  L.     Almond.     Rarely  found  in  cultivation. 

MIMOSACE.*]  Reichenb. 
ACACIA  Adans. 

Acacia  Julibrissin  L.     Native  of  Persia.     In  gardens. 
A.  lophantha  L.     Appears  here  and  there  in  gardens,  and  en- 
dures hard  winters. 

ACUAN  Med.     (Desmanthus  Willd.) 

Acuan  Illinoensis   (Michx.)    Kuntze.     Desmanthus  brachy- 

lobus  Benth.     Frequent  in  the  glades  of  M.  Tenn.      Ma\ 
tember. 


102  Tennessee  Flora. 

MORONGIA   Britton.     (Schrankia  Willd.) 

Morongia  uncinata  (Willd.)  Britton.  Schrankia  uncinata 
Willd.  Sensitive  brier.  Dry  soil.  W.  Tenn.,  Brownsville. 
May-July. 

M.  angustata  (Torr.  &  Gray)  Britton.  Schrankia  angustata 
P.  &  I.  Dry  soil.  In  the  glades  of  M.  Tenn.,  extending  into 
the  Alleghany  and  Cumberland  Mts.     May-July. 

CAESALPINACE^E  Kl.  &  Garke. 

CERCIS  L. 

Cercis  Canadensis  L.  Red  bud.  In  rich  soil.  O.  S. 
March,  April.     M. 

CASSIA  L. 

Cassia  nictitans  L.  Sensitive  pea.  Siliceous  soils.  O.  S. 
July-October. 

C.  Chamaecrista  L.  Partridge  pea.  Sunny  hillsides  in  sili- 
ceous formations. 

C.  Torra  L.  C.  obtusifolia  L.  Low  senna.  In  damp,  rich 
clay  soils.     River  banks.     O.  S.     July-October. 

C.  Marylandica  L.  Wild  senna.  Bottom  lands  and  waste 
ground.     O.  S.     July,  August.     M. 

C.  occidentalis  L.  Coffee  senna.  Jasper,  E.  Tenn.  R.  M. 
Middleton.     June,  July. 

GLEDITCHIA  L. 

Gleditchia  triacanthos  L.  Honey  locust.  Large  tree,  at- 
taining ioo  feet  by  4  feet  diameter.  Limestone  regions.  O. 
S.     May-July.     M. 

G.  aquatica  Marsh.  G.  monosperma  Walt.  Water  locust. 
W.  Tenn.     July. 

GYMNOCLADUS  Lam. 

Gymnocladus  dioica  (L.)  Koch.  G.  Canadensis  Lam. 
Large  forest  tree,  attaining  100  feet  high  by  3  feet  diameter. 
Scatteringly  O.  S.     Kentucky  coffee  tree.     May. 

PAPILIONACE^]  L. 

CLADRASTIS  Raf. 

Cladrastis  lutea  (Michx.)  Koch.  C.  tinctoria  Raf.  Yellow 
wood.  Hills  south  of  Nashville.  E.  Tenn.  Attaining  50  feet 
high  by  4  feet  diameter.     Trunk  liable  to  early  decay.     June. 

BAPTISIA  Vent. 

Baptisia  australis  (L.)  R.  Br.  Blue  false  Indigo.  Cedar 
glades  at  Lavergne.     June-August. 


Tennessee   Flora. 

B.  tinctoria  (L.)  R.  Br.  Abundant  m  Cumberland  and  Al- 
leghany Mts.     June.     .1/. 

B.  alba  (L.)  R.  Br.     White  wild  Endigo.     Mts.  of  I'..  Tenn. 

Ducktown.     June. 

CROTALARIA  L. 

Crotalaria  sagittalis    L.     Rattlebox.     Dry.   sandy   soil.     I  » 

S.     June,  July. 

LUPINUS  L. 

Lupinus  perennis  L.     Wild  lupine     Woods  near  Hiwa- 
Polk  County.     Also  S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small.     May.  June. 

L.  albus  L.  Field  lupine.  Sometimes  found  in  gardens. 
Makes  heavy  crops  in  S.  Europe. 

MEDICAGO  L. 

Medicago  sativa  L.     Alfalfa  Luzerne.     Cultivated   for  for- 
age.     Introduced     from     Europe.      Frequent     in     cult i  . 
grounds.     Summer. 

M.  lupulina  L.  Black  medic.  Waste  places.  Capitol  hill. 
Native  from  Europe.     March-May. 

MELILOTUS  Juss. 

Melilotus  alba  Desv.  White  melilot.  Bokhara  clover. 
Waste  places.  O.  S.  Adventitious  from  Europe.  Fragrant 
in  drying  and  good  for  fodder.     June-September. 

M.  officinalis  (  L.)  Lam.  Yellow  melilot.  Introduced  and 
spread  like  the  former.  Both  species  ought  to  be  cultivated 
for  forage.     June-August. 

TRIFOLIUM  L. 

Trifolium  agrarium  L.  Yellow  or  hop  clover.  Along  road- 
sides and  waste  places,  but  only  locally.  Naturalized  from 
Europe.     May-September. 

T.  procumbens  L.  Hop  trefoil.  Abundant  in  old  fields 
and  pastures.  O.  S.  Naturalized  from  Europe.  May-Sep- 
tember. 

T.  dubium  Sibthorp.  T.  procumbens  var.  minus  Koch. 
Occasional.  O.  S.  Nashville.  Naturalized  from  Europe. 
May-September. 

.  T.  incarnatum  L.     Crimson  clover.     Cultivated  for  fodder. 
Introduced  from  Europe.     Summer. 

T.  arvense  L.  Rabbit  foot.  In  sterile  waste  ground.  Fre- 
quent.     O.   S.      Naturalized   from    Europe.      May-Septcm' 

T.  pratense  L.     Red  clover.     Best  fodder  plant.     Natn 


104  Tennessee  Flora. 

S.  Europe  and  W.  Asia.  Fully  naturalized,  it  sustains  itself 
in  fields  and  meadows.     April-November. 

T.  reflexum  L.  Buffalo  clover.  Banks  of  Cumberland 
River,  below  Nashville.     April-July. 

T.  stoloniferum  Michx.  Running  Buffalo  clover.  Very 
common  in  rocky  limestone  glades  in  M.  Tenn.     May-August. 

T.  hybridum  L.  Alsike  or  Alsatian  clover.  Sometimes 
cultivated  for  fodder  and  spontaneous,  but  infrequent  in  pas- 
tures and  meadows.  Naturalized  from  Europe.  O.  S.  May- 
October. 

T.  repens  L.  White  clover.  In  fields  and  open  places. 
O.  S.     May-December. 

PSORALEA  L. 

Psoralea  pedunculata  (Mill.)  Vail.  P.  melilotoides  Michx. 
Samson's  snakeroot.     Hills  and  highlands  of  M.  Tenn. 

P.  Onobrychis  Nutt.  Sainfoin  Psoralea.  Banks  of  Ten- 
nessee and  Cumberland  Rivers.     June,  July. 

P.  subacaulis  T.  &  G.  Cedar  glades  and  rocky  lands  of  M. 
Tenn.     Tuber  highly  farinaceous.     March-June. 

AMORPHA  L. 

Amorpha  fruticosa  L.  False  Indigo.  Along  streams.  O. 
S.     May,  June. 

A .  canescens  Pursh.  Lead  plant.  Grainger  County.  A. 
Ruth. 

A.  Tennessiensis  Shuttlw.  Alleghany  Mts.  Wolf  Creek 
and  Ocoee  River,  above  Parksville.     April-June. 

A.  virgata  Britt.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     C.  L.  Boynton. 

PAROSELA  Cav.     (Dalea  Willd.) 

Parosela  Dalea  (L.)  Britton.  Dalea  alopecuroides  Willd. 
Frequent  in  W.  Tenn.     August,  September. 

PETALOSTEMON  Michx. 

Petalostemon  candidus  (Willd.)  Kuntze.  P.  candidus 
Michx.  White  prairie  clover.  Cowan,  near  tunnel.  Para- 
dise Ridge,  Davidson  County.     July,  August. 

P.  purpureus  (Vent.)  McM.  P.  Violaceous  Michx.  Ce- 
dar glades  of  M.  Tenn.     July,  August. 

P.  foliosus  (A.  Gray)  Kuntze.  Frequent  in  vicinity  of 
Nashville  and  the  cedar  glades.     June,  July. 


Tennessee   Flora.  105 

*P.    Gattingeri    Heller.      Petalostemoti    decumbens    Nutt. 

Frequent  in  the  cedar  glades  of  M.  Tenn.     A  white  vari< 
found  at  Lavergne,  Rutherford  County.     June.  July. 

INDIGOFERA   L. 

Indigofera  tinctoria  L.      Endigo.      Formerly  cultivated  for 
home  use  by  country  people  For  dyeing  homespun  goods.     E. 

Tenn.     July,  August. 

CRACCAL.      (Thcphrosia  IVi^.i 

Cracca  Virginiana  L.      Thephrosia  Virginiana  Pers 

gut.     Dry,  siliceous  soils.     Common  in  the  oak  barrens.     0   S 
June,  July. 

C.  spicata  (Walt.)   Kuntze.     Same  range  with  the  former. 

O.  S.     June-August. 

KRAUNHIA  Raf.      (Wistaria  Xutt.  | 

Kraunhia  frutescens  (L.)  Greene.     Wistaria frutescens  Poir. 

Alts,  at  Cowan.     May,  June. 

fK.  macrostachys  Small.     Banks  of  Cumberland  River, 

low  Nashville.     jYfay. 

ROBINIA  L. 

Robinia  Pseudacacia  L.     Yellow  or  black  locust.     Tr< 
taining  a  height  of  80  feet.     O.  S.     May,  June. 

R.  viscosa  Vent.     Clammy  locust.     Grand  View,  E.  Tenn. 

Miss  Hattie  R.  Stratton.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     June. 

*P.  Gattingeri  Heller  n.  sp.  vide  Bull.  Toir.  Bot.  Club.  Vol.  XXI II 
No.  4,  p.  121;  April  11,  1896.  Perennial;  stems,  a  foot  in  length  or 
more,  usually  branching  from  the  base,  sometimes  decumbent  spar- 
ingly glandular  and  pubescent,  sometimes  villous  on  the  peduncles; 
leaflets,  2  or  3  pairs,  narrowly  linear  or  oblong,  from  j ..  to  y4  of  an  Inch 
long,  one  line  in  width  or  less,  dull  and  glandular  on  the  upper  Bide, 
light  green  beneath,  the  midvein  prominent;  spikes  on  rather  short 
peduncles,  cylindrical,  loose,  especially  when  old.  from  1  to  i1'  .  Inchet 
long;  bracts,  slightly  longer  than  the  calyx,  oval-lanceolate,  Blender 
pointed,  glandular,  pubescent;  calyx,  pubescent,  with  spreading  hairs. 
the  lanceolate  lobes  slightly  shorter  than  the  tube  and  more  pubet 
petals,  deep  rose  purple;  ovary  and  base  of  stylo,  pubescent 

fK.    macrostachys    Small.      Wistaria    Frutescens    var.    macrosta 
T.  C.  Gray.     A  vine  sometimes  from  20  to  25  feet  long,  Btem 
2  inches  thick,  branching;   leaves.  4-8  Inches  long;    leaflets,  usually  :<. 
ovate  to  elliptic-lanceolate,  1:',  Inches  long,  acuminate  or  a<  ut< 
or  cordate  at  the  base;    racemes.   8-12    Inches   long,    loosely    flow< 
drooping;    rachis  and  pedicels,  densely   hirsute  and   glandular; 
pubescent,    like   the    pedicels;    the   tube,    companulate;    tin 
lanceolate,  lateral  ones  about  as  lout;  as  the  tube,  lower  on* 
corolla  lilac,  purple  or  light  blue;   standard,  with  blade  7  li? 
decurrent  on  the  claw;  pods.  2-4  Inches  long,  constricted  between  the 
black,  lustrous  seeds.      (Illustrated  Flora:    Appendix,  page  517.) 


106  Tennessee  Flora. 

R.  hispida  L.  Rose  Acacia.  Lookout  Mt.,  Chattanooga. 
Young  plants  bear  flowers  when  only  a  span  high.  Var.  nana 
Ell.     Very  ornamental  in  cultivation.     May. 

ASTRAGALUS  L. 

Astragalus  crassicarpus  Nutt.  A.  caryocarpus  Ker.  Ground 
plum.     Cedar  glades  near  Lavergne  Station. 

A.  Tennessiensis  A.  Gray.  Milk  vetch.  Very  frequent  in 
the  rocky  glades  of  M.  Tenn.     March-May. 

A.  Carolinianus  L.     A.  Canadensis  L.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

STYLOSANTHES  Sw. 

Stylosanthes  biflora  (L.)  B.  S.  P.  St.  elatior  Sw.  Pencil 
flower.     Siliceous  soils.     O.  S.     June-September. 

S.  riparia  T.  H.  Kearney.  At  Sewanee  both  species  occur 
in  close  proximity.     O.  S.     June-September. 

MEIBOMIA  Adans.     (Desmodium  Desv.) 

Meibomia  nudiflora  (L.)  Kuntze.  Desmodium  nudiflorum 
DC.     Woods.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

M.  grandiflora  (Walt.)  Kuntze.  Desmodium  acuminatum 
DC.     Dry,  rocky  woods.     O.  S.     June-September. 

M.  pauciflora  (Nutt.)  Kuntze.  Desmodium  pauciflorum  DC. 
In  leaf  mold.     O.  S.     July. 

M.  Michauxii  Vail.  Desmodium  rotundifolium  DC.  Woods. 
O.  S.     July-September. 

M.  ochroleuca  (M.  A.  Curtis)  Kuntze.  Desmodium  ochro- 
leucum  M.  A.  Curtis.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

M.  glabella  (Michx.)  Kuntze.  Desmodium  humifusum 
Beck.     Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.     Ridge  Top,  Baker's  Station. 

M.  sessilifolia  (Torr.)  Kuntze.  Desmodium  sessilifolium 
T.  &  I.  Along  railroad,  Mitchellville,  Sumner  County.  July- 
September. 

M.  canescens  (L.)  Kuntze.  Desmodium  canescens  DC. 
Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.     July-September. 

M.  bracteosa  (Michx.)  Kuntze.  Desmodium  cuspidatum 
Hook.  Ridge  Top,  Sumner  County.  In  siliceous  soil.  July, 
August. 

M.  paniculata  (L.)  Kuntze.  Desmodium  paniculatum  DC. 
The  most  common  species  in  calcareous  and  siliceous  soils. 
July-September. 

M.  laevigata  (Nutt.)  Kuntze.  Desmodium  lrevigatum  DC. 
O.  S. 

M.  viridiflora  (L.)  Kuntze.  Desmodium  viridiflorum  Beck. 
Siliceous  soils.     O.  S.     August-October. 


Tennessbe   Flora.  L07 

M.    Dillenii    (Darl.)     ECuntze.     Desmodium    Dillenii    Darl. 

O.  S.     July. 

M.  Canadensis  (L.J  Kuntze.  Desmodium  Canadense  DC. 
Cumberland  Mts.,  Cowan.     July-September. 

M.  rigida   (Ell.)    ECuntze.     Desmodium   rigidum    I" 
dar  glades.     Lavergne.     July-(  October. 

M.  Marylandica  (L.)  Kuntze.  Desmodium  Marylandicum 
Boott.     Cedar  and  oak  barrens.     M.  Tenn.     July-September. 

M.  obtusa  (Miihl.)  Vahl.  Desmodium  ciliare  DC  Bar- 
rens.    July-October. 

LESPEDEZA  Michx. 

Lespedeza  repens  (L.)  Bart.  Creeping  bush  clover.  Sili- 
ceous soils.     O.  S.     August,  September. 

L.  procumbens  Michx.  L.  repens  var.  procumbens.  (  ira)  's 
Man.     O.  S.     August,  September. 

L.  violacea  (L.)  Pers.  Dry  copses.  (  ).  S.  August,  Sep- 
tember. 

L.  Stuvei  Nutt.  Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.  August.  Var, 
intermedia  S.  Watson.     With  preceding. 

L.  frutescens  (L.)  Britton.  L.  reticulata  S.  Watson.  Har- 
peth  hills.     August,  September. 

L.  hirta  (L.)  Ell.  L.  polystachya  Michx.  Dry,  siliceous 
soils.     O.  S.     August-October. 

L.  capitata  Michx.     Harpeth  hills.     Tullahoma. 

L.  leptostachya  Engelm.  Dry  hill  lands.  \V.  I'enn.  Au- 
gust, September. 

L.  striata  (Thunb.)  H.  &  A.  Japan  clover.  Widely  spread 
over  the  whole  State,  carpeting  the  ground  with  a  beautiful 
sod.  Has  been  in  the  remotest  mountain  settlements  since 
fifty  years,  and  is  probably  indigenous.  Also  found  in  Japan, 
from  whence  it  is  believed  to  have  been  imported.  .Inly.  Au- 
gust.    It  is  an  annual. 


& 


VICIA  L. 

Vicia   Americana    Miihl.      Thickets,   vicinity   of    Nashville. 

May-July. 

V.  Caroliniana  Walt.     Valleys  of  E.  Tenn.      May-July. 

V.  micrantha  Nutt.     Copses  and  edge  of  woods.      M.    Tenn. 
Nashville.     April,  May. 

V.  sativa  L.      Common   vetch  or  tare.      Sometimes  sown 
with  rye  and  cut  for  fodder.     Native  of  Europe.     May-August. 

V.   Faba   L.     Common   field   pea.     Small    patches   are   - 
sionallv  found  in  erardens. 


108  Tennessee  Flora. 

ERVUM  L. 

Ervum  Lens  L.  The  lentil  is  sparingly  cultivated  for  culi- 
nary use.     May-July. 

PISUM  L. 

Pisum  sativum  L.  Garden  pea.  Cultivated  as  field  and 
garden  crops  in  many  varieties.  Pisum  arvense  L.  preferred 
for  field  culture. 

CICER  L. 

Cicer  arietinum  L.  Sugar  pea.  Already  known  to  the  lake 
dwellers.     Cultivated  by  all  truck  farmers. 

LATHYRUS  L. 

Lathyrus  venosus  Miihl.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  A.  Ruth. 
Kate's  Mt.,  S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small.     May-July. 

L.  myrtifolius  Miihl.  L.  palustris  var.  myrtifolius  A.  Gray. 
According  to  Illustrated  Flora,  in  E.  Tenn.     May-July. 

BRADBURYA  Raf.      (Centrosema  Benth.) 

Bradburya  Virginiana  (L.)  Kuntze.  Spurred  butterfly. 
Centrosema  Virginianum  Benth.  Siliceous  soils.  O.  S. 
Piney  Creek,  Rhea  County.     Mrs.  L.  Bennett.     July,  August. 

CLITORIA  L. 

Clitoria  Mariana  L.  Dry,  sunny  places  in  siliceous  ground. 
O.  S.     June,  July. 

FALCATA  Gmel.      (Amphicarpaea  Ell.) 

Falcata  comosa  (L.)  Kuntze.  Amphicarpaea  monoica  Ell. 
Hog  peanut.     Damp  woodlands.     O.  S.     August,  September. 

F.  Pitcheri  (T.  &  G.)  Kuntze.  Amphicarpaea  Pitched  T. 
&  G.     Fide  Illustrated  Flora. 

APIOS  Mcench. 

Apios  Apios  ( L.)  McM.  Apios  tuberosa  Mcench.  Ground- 
nut. Moist  thickets.  O.  S.  Climbing  or  trailing  over  shrubs. 
O.  S.     July-September. 


Tennessee   Flora.  109 

*A.  Priceana  B.  L.  Rpbinson.     Similar  localities   with  the 

former.     Nashville.     May,  June. 

GALACTIA  P.   Br. 

Galactia  regularis  (L.)  B.  S.  P.  G.  glabella  Michx.  Milk- 
pea.     Open  grounds.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

G.  volubilis  (L.)  Britton.     G.  pilosa   Ell.     G.   mollis   Nut! 

White  Bluff,  Dickson  County.     June,  July. 

G.  mollis  Michx.     G.  pilosa  Nutt.     Common  in  open,  drv 

ground.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

RHYNCHOSIA  Lam. 

Rhynchosia  tomentosa   (L.)    H.  &  A.     Dry,  siliceous 
O.  S.     May-July. 

PHASEOLUS  L. 

Phaseolus  polystachys  (L.)  B.  S.  P.  I'.  perennis  Walt. 
Wild  bean.  Brownsville  Cumberland  Mts.  Mr-.  Lydia 
Bennett.     July-September. 

P.  vulgaris  Savi.  Common  harricot.  Pole  bean.  Var. 
nanus  bush  bean.  Cultivated  since  the  dawn  of  culture  to 
the  present  day  in  many  varieties.  Believed  to  have  come 
from  W.  Asia. 

P.  lunatus  L.     The  lima  bean  is  claimed  for  the  intertropical 

*A.   Priceana  B.   L.   Robinson.     (Torr.   Bot.    Bull.       IM'vi     v\    n 
herbaceous  twiner;  stem,  terate,  slightly  striate,  at  first  covered  with  ;i 
fine  reflexed  pubescence,  but  soon  nearly  glabrate.  arising  from  a  large 
oblate  spheroidal  root  (18  cm.  diameter);   leaves,  3-9  foliate,  th. 
the  main  stem   24  cm.   long,  the  ovate  or  ovate-lanceolate   a.  m  ilnate 
leaflets   sparingly  pubescent  upon   both   surfaces,   green    and    Bcarcely 
paler  beneath,  thin  and  rather  veiny,  obtuse  or  rounded  at   th.'  base, 
4-10  cm.  long,  half  as  broad;  petiolules,  hirsutulous;  leaves  ami  leaflets 
of  the  branches,  considerably  smaller:   stipules,  subulate,   pubea 
mm.   long;    racemes,   dense,   borne  mostly    by   twos   and    threes    in    tin- 
axils,  those  of  the  main  stem  often  12-15  cm.  long,  50-70  flowered,  and 
mostly  bearing  a  single  short  branch:   rameal  Inflorescences,  smaller 
and  simple;   floral  axes,  thickish;    pedicels,  slomh-r.   .'    mm.   long,  com* 
monly  borne  by  twos  and  threes  in  the  axils  of  ovate  caudate-acuminate 
bracts  at  somewhat  greater  length;   calyx,  hemispherical   roseate;   th.' 
limb,  obliquely  subtruncate,  except  for  the  linear-attenuate  anterior 
tooth;   petals,  greenish  white,  tinged  especially  toward  th-'  end  with 
rose  purple  or  magenta;  the  vexillum  suborbicular  26  mm.  long,  biau- 
riculate  at  the  base  and  bluntly  cornute  at  the  apex;  wings,  Bomewhal 
shorter,  narrowly  oblong,  a  little  broadened  ami  rounded  at  th.' 
essential  organs  of  the  genus:   pods,  clustered,    L2-16  cm.   lone.    I    cm. 
broad,  acuminate  at  the  apex,  attenuate  at   the  has.-,  about 
seeds,  oblong,  olive  green.  8  mm.  long,  separated  in  the  i«"!  by  bicoi 
sections  of  the  silvery-white  pithy  endocarp.     First   collected  and  .lis 
tinguished  by  Miss  Sady  F.  Price,  of  Bowling  Green,  Ky. 


110  Tennessee  Flora. 

parts  of  both  hemispheres,  and  cultivated  with  us  as  a  runner 
and  a  bush  bean. 

P.  multiflorus  L.  The  scarlet  runner.  It  succeeds  only  on 
the  higher  mountains,  but  sets  no  pods  in  the  lowlands  of  this 
State. 

ARACHIS  Willd. 

Arachis  hypogaea  Willd.  Peanut.  Goober  pea.  Native  of 
tropical  S.  America.  Largely  cultivated  in  the  western  part 
of  the  State  for  its  seeds  and  the  oil  which  is  obtained  from 
them.     August-October.     31. 

STROPHOSTYLES  Ell.     (Phaseolus  L.) 

Strophostyles  Helvola  (L.)  Britton.  Phaseolus  Helvolus 
L.  Strophostyles  angulosa  Ell.  Sandy  soil.  O.  S.  July- 
October. 

S.  umbellata  (Miihl.)  Britton.  Ph.  Helvolus  T.  &  G.  P. 
peduncularis  Ell.     Abundant  in  the  barrens.     July-September. 

S.  pauciflora  (Benth.)  S.  Watson.  In  rich,  moist  grounds. 
O.  S.     July-September. 

VIGNA  Savi. 

*Vigna  Sinensis  (L.)  Endl.  and  var.  V.  melanocarpa.  Cow 
pea.  Planted  between  corn  rows.  In  cultivation  only.  O.  S. 
July-September. 

GERANIACE.E  J.  St.  Hilaire. 
GERANIUM  L. 

Geranium  maculatum  L.  Spotted  crane's  bill.  Woods. 
O.  S.     April-July.     M. 

G.  Carolinianun  L.  Carolina  crane's  bill.  Waste  grounds. 
O.  S.     April-August. 

G.  pusillum  L.'  Slopes  of  White  Rock  Mts.,  S.  W.  Va.  Ad- 
ventive  from  Europe.     May. 

\\  OXALIDACEJE  Lindl. 

OXALIS  L. 

Oxalis  Acetosella  L.  White  wood  sorrel.  Summits  of  the 
high  mountains  of  E.  Tenn.     ]\ Fay-July. 

O.  violacea  L.     Rocky  woods.     O.  S.     May,  June. 

O.  macrantha  Trelease.  Rocky  glades.  M.  Tenn.  April- 
September. 

♦Two  allied  species  have  been  recently  introduced  from  the  tropics, 
the  soja  bean  (Glycine  hispida)  and  the  velvet  bean  (Mucuna  utilis 
Wall.).  It  has  been  found  that  the  seasons  of  Tennessee  are  not  al- 
ways long  enough  to  perfect  their  growth. 


Tennessee  Flora.  i  i  i 

0.  filipes  Small  n.  sp.    In  Tennessee.    Fide  Illustrated  Flora. 

May-August. 

C).  stricta  L.     Woods.     ( ).  S.     April-October. 

O.  grandis  Small.     O.  recurva  Trelease.     Rich  soils.     I 

May- August. 

O.  corniculata  L.  In  fields  and  gardens.  Introduced. 
February-November. 

O.    hirsuticaulis    J.    K.    Small.     Nashville.     Open    woods. 

With  O.  macrantha.     April,  May. 

LINACE2E  Dnmort. 
LINUM  L. 

Linum    usitatissimum    L.      Flax.      Linseed.      Along    road 
sides.     Adventitious  from  Europe  or  fugitive  from  cultivation. 
which  has  recently  greatly  declined  in  this  State.   Summer.    1/. 

L.  Virginianum  L.  Yellow  flax.  Dry,  open  woodlands. 
O.  S.     June-August. 

L.  Floridanum  (Planch.)  Trelease.  Near  Dickson,  Dickson 
County. 

L.  striatum  Walt.     Cedar  and  oak  barrens.     O.  S.     Jinn 

L.  sulcatum  Riddel.     Hickman,  W.  Tenn.     Summer. 

RUTACE.E  Juss. 

XANTHOXYLUM  L. 

Xanthoxylum  Americanum  Mill.  Prickly  ash.  Hills  vicin- 
ity of  Nashville.     April,  May.     .1/". 

PTELEA  L. 

Ptelea  trifoliata  L.     Three-leaved  hop  tree.     Common  shrub 

in  the  limestone  regions  of  Tennessee.     June.      M. 

RUTA  L. 

Ruta  graveolens  L.  Common  garden  rue.  Found  in  an 
open  field  at  Belvidere,  Franklin  Count  v.  Introduced.  June. 
M. 

STMAKIT.ACK.K  \)C. 
AILANTHUS  Desf. 

Ailanthus  glandulosa    Desv.     Tree   of   heaven.      Ulanthus. 

Fully  naturalized,    and    spreading.     The    male    tree    is   ol 
tionable  for  planting  in  streets  on  account  of  the  disagreeable 
odor  of  its  flower.     Native  of  China.     June-September.      If. 


112  Tennessee  Flora. 

MELIACE.E  DC. 

MELIA  L. 

Melia   Azedarach   L.     Formerly  frequently  seen   in   yards, 
but  apparently  dying  out.     Pride  of  India  China  tree. 

KCEHLREUTERA  DC. 

Koehlreutera    paniculata    DC.       Recently    introduced,    but 
seemingly  not  bearing  rigorous  winters. 

POLYGALACE^E. 
POLYGALA  L. 

Polygala  cruciata  L.     Marsh  milkwort.     Oak  barrens.     O. 
S.     July. 

P.   verticillata   L.     Mts.   of    E.   Tenn.     Tuckalechee    Cove 
June. 

P.    ambigua    Xutt.     Dry    soils.     O.    S.     Nashville.     May- 
July. 

P.  incarnata  L.     Barrens,  siliceous  and  rather  moist  soils. 
Summer. 

P.  viridescens  L.     P.  sanguinea   L.     Cumberland   Mts.     J. 
F.  James. 

P.  Curtissii  A.  Gray.     Barrens  and  mountains  of  E.  Tenn. 
August,  September. 

P.  Mariana  Mill.     P.  fastigiata  Nutt.     Sewanee.     July,  Au- 
gust. 

P.  Nuttallii  T.  &  G.     P.  sanguinea  Nutt.     Siliceous  soils. 
O.  S.     July,  August. 

P.  Senega  L.     Seneca  snakeroot.     O.  S.     May,  June. 

P.  Senega  latifolia  T.  &  G.     E.  Tenn.  and  vicinity  of  Nash- 
ville.    May,  June. 

P.  polygama  Walt.     Valley  of  E.  Tenn.     Frequent.     June, 
July. 

P.  paucifolia  Willd.     Flowering  wintergreen.     Cumberland 
Mts.     Rugby.     Mrs.  Percival.     Alleghany  Mts. 

EUPHORBIACE.E  J.  St.  Hil. 
PHYLLANTHUS  L. 

Phyllanthus  Carolinensis  Walt.     Pastures  and  glades.     O. 
S.     Mav-October. 

CROTON   L. 

Croton  glandulosus  L.     O.  S.     Not  as  common  as  the  fol- 
lowing.    July-September. 

C.  capitatus  Michx.     Dry  soils,  especially  M.  Tenn.     June- 
September. 


Tennessee  Flora.  i  18 

C.  monanthogynus  Michx.  Dry  pastures.  O.  5.  fune- 
October.     M. 

CROTONOPSIS  Michx. 
Crotonopsis   linearis    Michx.     Cedar    barrens.     Summ 
Lookout  Mt.     July-September, 

ACALYPHA  L. 

Acalypha  ostryaefolia  Ridd.  A.  Caroliniana  I'll.  Gardens 
and  fields.     O.  S.     June. 

A.  Virginica  L.     Fields  and  thickets.     <  >.  S.     June  '  October. 

A.  gracilens  A.  Gray.  Dry.  rocky  grounds.  O.  S.  June- 
September. 

TRAGIA  L. 

Tragia  nepetaefolia  Cav.  East  of  Cleveland,  Bradley  ( !ounty. 
May-October. 

T.  macrocarpa  Willd.  Severely  stinging.  Abundant  in  the 
cedar  barrens  of  M.  Tenn.     Nashville.     June-September. 

RICINUS  L. 

Ricinus  communis  L.     Castor-oil  plant.     Cultivated   ; 
ornamental  plant,  and  escaping  into  waste  places.     July-Sep- 
tember.    M. 

STILLINGIA  L. 

Stillingia  sylvatica  L.     Queen  root.     Vicinity  of  Memphis. 

Dr.  G.  Egeling.     March-October.     .1/. 

EUPHORBIA  L. 

Euphorbia  serpens  H.  B.  K.  Abundant  in  glades  and  culti- 
vated grounds.     Nashville.     July-September. 

E.  maculata  L.     Spotted  spurge.     O.  S.     June-November. 

E.  humistrata  Engelm.  River  banks  and  moist  grounds. 
Nashville.     July,  August. 

E.  nutans  Lag.  E.  hypericifolia  A.  Gray.  A  troublesome 
weed  in  cornfields.     O.  S.     May-October.     M . 

E.  corollata  L.     Flowering  spurge.     Open  woodlands 
S.     April-October.     M. 

E.  marginata  Pursh.  Along  lines  ni  railroads.  An  immi- 
grant from  the  West.     May-October. 

E.  dentata  Michx.  Glades  of  M.  Tenn.  Nashville.  June- 
September. 

E.  Ipecacuanhas  L.     W.  Tenn.      May. 

E.  heterophylla  L.  Harpeth  hills,  near  Nashville.  Vpril- 
November. 

E.  Lathyris  L.  Vicinity  of  Roane  Mt.  J.  \V.  Chickering. 
May,  June. 


1U  Tennessee  Flora. 

E.  obtusata  Pursh.  Frequent  in  glades  around  Nashville. 
March-June. 

E.  commutata  Engelm.     Cedar  barrens  of  M.  Tenn.     April. 

E.  mercurialina  Michx.  Stoner's  Creek,  Wilson  County. 
Tunnel  Hill,  Sumner  County.     Lookout  Mt.     May-July. 

CALLITRICHACEJE  Lindl. 
CALLITRICHE  L. 

Callitriche  Austini  Engelm.  Water  starwort.  On  mud 
banks  along  streams.     Nashville.     July. 

C.  heterophylla  Pursh.  Ponds  near  Nashville.  July-Sep- 
tember. 

BUXACE.E  Dumirt. 

PACHYSANDRA   Michx. 

Pachysandra  procumbens  Michx.  Dr.  Hampton's  farm,  Da- 
vidson County.  White  Bluff,  Dickson  County.  Beersheba 
Springs,  Grundy  County.     Col.  Wilkins.     April,  May. 

ANACARDIACE.E  Lindl. 
RHUS  L. 

Rhus  copallina  L.  Darf  sumac.  Poor,  siliceous  soils.  O. 
S.     June-August. 

R.  hirta  (L.)  Ludw.  R.  tyhina  L.  Staghorn  sumac.  Hill- 
sides.    O.  S.     June. 

R.  glabra  L.  Scarlet  sumac.  Old  fields.  O.  S.  June- 
August.     M. 

R.  aromatica  Ait.  R.  Canadensis  Marsh.  Limestone  re- 
gions of  M.  Tenn.     March,  April.     M. 

R.  trilobata  Nutt.  Rh.  aromatica  var.  trilobata  Gray.  Oc- 
curs over  the  same  range.     M. 

R.  Vernix  L.  R.  venenata  DC.  Poison  sumac.  Poison 
ash.  Boggy  lands  in  the  Cumberland  Mts.  Sewanee.  June. 
M. 

R.  radicans  L.  R.  Toxicodendron  Michx.  Poison  oak.  E. 
Tenn.     May,  June.     .]/. 

R.  Toxicodendron  L.  With  crenately-lobed,  very-pubescent 
leaves.     Nashville.     M. 

COTINUS  Adans. 

Cotkius  cotinoides  (Nutt.)  Britton.  R.  cotinoides  Nutt. 
Southern  border  of  the  State.  Limestone  County,  Ala.  Dr. 
Charles  Mohr.     April,  May. 


Tennessee  Flora.  i  15 

ILICIXK.K   Lowe. 
ILEX  L. 

Ilex  opaca  Ait.     American  holly.     A  slim  tree  in  the  Cum- 
berland and  Alleghany  Mts.     Attains  a  heighl  of  5"  fee!  l>\ 

18  to  20  inches  diameter  in  the   Cumberland   and    Eiiwa 
River  bottoms.     April.     Fruit  matures  in  November,  Decem- 
ber.    M. 

I.  decidua  Walt.      Swamp  holly.      Brownsville,  W.  Tenn. 

May. 

I.  monticola  A.  Gray.     I.  montana  T.  &  G.     Mts.  of  K.  Tenn. 

I.  monticola  mollis  A.  Gray.     Lookout  lit.     June.  Inly. 

I.  verticillata  (.L)  A.  Grav.     Black  alder.     Swain].-  at  Hoi 
low  Rock,  W.  Tenn.     E.  Tenn.     A.  Ruth. 

I.   ambigua   Chapm.      Foot   of   mountains    near    tunnel    al 
Cowan.     July,  August. 

I.  Bidleyi  W.  W.     Ashe  from  the   mountains  of    E.  Tenn. 
Is  perhaps  identical  with  the  foregoing. 

CELASTRACE/E  Lindl. 

EVONYMUS  L. 

Evonymus  Americanus  L.     Strawberry  bush.     (  >.  S.      fune. 
M. 

E.    atropurpureus    Jacq.     Burning    bush.     Wahoo.     Along 

streams.     O.  S.     June.     M. 

CELASTRUS  L. 

Celastrus  scandens  L.     Climbing  bittersweet.     Brownsville, 

W.  Tenn.     Also  Bushy  Mts.,  S.  \\  .  Va.     J.  K.  Small.      1/ 

STAPHYLEACE^l  DC. 
STAPHYLEA  L. 

Staphylea  trifolia  L.     American  bladdernut.      Moist  w 

O.  S.     Nashville.     April,  May. 

ACERACEJE  Si.  llil. 
ACER   L. 

Acer  saccharinum  L.     A.  dasycarpum  Ehrh.     Silver  maple. 

A  larq-e  tree  reaching   too  feet   by   3  feet   diameter.      Bot 
lands  and  river  banks.     Flowers  in  February,  March,  and  ma- 
tures its  seeds  the  earliest  of  all  our  plants. 

A.  rubrum  L.      Red  or  swamp   maple.      Wet   or  swampy 
lands.     O.  S.      March.  April. 

A.  saccharum   Marsh.      \.   saccharinum   Wanger.     A.   bar 


116  Tennessee  Floea. 

batum  Michx.  Sugar  maple.  Large  tree.  O.  S.  Frequent 
around  Nashville.     April,  May. 

A.  nigrum  Michx.  A.  saccharinum  var.  nigrum  T.  &  G. 
Black  sugar  maple.     Large  tree.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

A.  leucoderme  J.  K.  Small.  Banks  of  Ocoee  River  above 
Parksville.     C.  L.  Boynton. 

A.  Pennsylvanicum  L.  Moose  wood.  Striped  maple. 
Smoky  Mts.    Slopes  of  White  Top  Mt.,  S.  W.  Va.    J.  K.  Small. 

A.  spicatum  Lam.  Mountain  maple.  Small  tree.  Summit 
of  Thunderhead.     May,  June. 

A.  Negundo  L.  Negundo  aceroides  Moench.  Box  elder. 
Large,  irregularly-branching  tree,  growing  alongside  water 
courses.     O.  S.     April. 

HIPPOCASTANACEJE  T.  &  G. 
iESCULUS  L. 

iEsculus  Hippocastanum  L.  A  large  tree.  Native  of  Asia. 
Frequently  planted  in  cities,  but  not  enduring  high  tempera- 
tures.    Horse  chestnut.     May. 

IE.  glabra  Willd.  Ohio  buckeye.  Frequent  in  the  barrens 
of  M.  Tenn.     April,  May. 

IE.  octandra  Marsh.  M.  flava  Ait.  Yellow  buckeye.  O. 
S.     April,  May. 

IE.  octandra  hybrida  Sargt.  M.  flava  var.  purpurascens 
A.  Gray.  A  decumbent  shrub.  Frequent  at  the  foot  of  the 
Cumberland  Mts.  and  ravines  in  E.  Tenn.  Ought  to  be  ranked 
as  a  species.     April,  May. 

IE.  Pavia  L.  Red  buckeye.  Prospect  Station,  Giles  County. 
A  small  tree.  It  is  also  flowering  when  only  a  span  high, 
April,  May. 

iE.  parviflora  Walt.  A  shrub.  Very  ornamental  and 
planted  in  gardens.  Native  of  N.  Alabama,  and  perhaps  also 
occurring  on  the  southern  borders  of  this  State.     April,  May. 

SAPINDACEJE  R.  Br. 

CARDIOSPERMUM  L. 

Cardiospermum  Halicacabum  L.  Balloon  vine.  Native  of 
tropical  America.  Frequently  in  cultivation  and  escaped. 
May-July. 

BALSAMINACEJE  Lindl. 

IMPATIENS  L. 

Impatiens  biflora  Walt.  I.  fulva  Nutt.  Spotted  touch-me- 
not.     Moist  grounds.     O.  S.     July-October. 

I.  aurea  Muni.  T.  pallida  Nutt.  Pale  touch-me-not.  Sim- 
ilar localities.     O.  S.     July-September.     M. 


Tennessee   Floba.  iit 

RHAMXACKJ-:  Dumort. 

kERCHEMIA  Neck. 

Berchemia  scandens  (Hill.)  Trel.  B.  volubilis  DC.  Supple 
jack.  Lookout  Mt.  Very  luxuriantly  in  low  grounds  in 
Brownsville,  W.  Tenn.     March-June. 

RHAMNUS  L. 

Rhamnus  lanceolata  Pursh.     Buckthorn.     River  hank-  and 

copses.     Nashville.     May.     .1/. 

Rh.  Caroliniana  Walt.  Carolina  buckthorn.  Low  grounds. 
O.  S.     May,  June.     M. 

ZIZYPHUS   Lam. 

Zizyphus  vulgaris  Lam.  Jujuba.  Cultivated  in  a  few  gar- 
dens. Fosterville.  Small  tree.  Perfectly  hardy.  Abundant 
bearer.  The  fruit,  a  small  plum  of  agreeable  flavor,  is  com- 
monly eaten  in  both  fresh  and  dry  state.  Ought  to  be  more 
largely  cultivated.     May. 

CEANOTHUS  L. 

Ceanothus  Americanus  L.  New  Jersey  tea.  Red  root.  In 
siliceous  soils.     O.  S.     May,  June. 

VITACE^  Lindl. 
VITIS   L. 

Vitis  Labrusca  L.  Northern  fox  grape.  Along  the  Alle- 
ghany Mts.  Cultivated  in  Bayer's  settlement,  in  the  Frog 
Mts.,  as  early  as  1848  by  French  and  German  immigrants,  and 
improved  in  size  and  flavor.  It  made  very  good  wine.  May. 
Fruit  ripens  in  August,  September. 

V.  aestivalis  Michx.  Summer  grape.  Uplands,  cedar  glades, 
and  mountains.     May.     Fruit  ripe  in  September,  (  )ctober, 

V.  cinerea  Engelm.  Downy  grape.  Along  banks  of  Cum- 
berland River,  Nashville,  and  over  M.  Tenn.  May.  Fruit 
ripe  in  September. 

V.  cordifolia  Michx.  Frost  grape.  O.  S.  Mav.  Fruit 
ripe  in  October,  November. 

V.  rupestris  Scheele.  Sand  grape,  [stands  of  Cumberland 
River.  Bluffs  on  Mill  Creek  and  Stoner's  Creek.  Fruit  ripe 
in  July,  August. 

V.  rotundifolia  Michx.  V.  vulpina  T.  &  G.  Southern  fox 
grape.  Muscadine  grape.  In  siliceous  soil.  Cumberland 
Mts.     Mav.     Fruit  ripe  in  August,  September. 

V.  palmata  Vahl.  River  banks  of  Tennessee  River.  Fruit 
maturing  in  September. 


118  Tennessee  Flora. 

AMPELOPSIS  Michx. 

Ampelopsis  cordata  Michx.  Vitis  indivisa  Willd.  River 
banks  and  moist  woodlands,  M.  Tenn.    Nashville.    May,  June. 

A.  arborea  (L.)  Rusby.  Vitis  bipinnata  T.  &  G.  Damp 
soil.     \Y.   Tenn.     June,  July. 

PARTHENOCISSUS   Planchon.      (Ampelopsis   Michx.) 

Parthenocissus  quinquefolia  (L.)  Planch.  Ampelopsis 
quinquefolia  Michx.  Virginia  creeper.  O.  S.  June-August. 
M. 

P.  tricuspidata  (Sieb.  &  Zucc.)  Planch.  Ampelopsis 
Veitchii.  Frequently  cultivated.  Closely  clinging  to  walls. 
Is  a  Japanese  vine. 

TILIACEJE  Juss. 

TILIA  L. 

Tilia  Americana  L.  Basswood.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  May, 
June.     M. 

T.  heterophylla  Vent.  White  basswood.  River  banks  and 
bottom  lands.     Nashville.     June,  July. 

T.  Europaea  L.  The, European  linden.  Frequently  planted 
as  an  ornamental  tree.  The  exquisite  fragrancy  of  the  flowers 
and  its  freedom  from  disease  and  insect  pests  recommend  it 
for  more  frequent  planting.     May.     M. 

MALVACEAE  Neck. 
MALVA  L. 

Malva  sylvestris  L.  Mallow.  Waters  of  Holston  River, 
S.  WT.  Va.     J.  K.  Small. 

M.  rotundifolia  L.  Cheeses.  Naturalized  from  Europe. 
Waste  places.     O.  S.     Summer. 

M.  verticillata  L.  M.  crispa  L.  Waste  grounds.  Adven- 
titious.    O.  S.     Summer. 

M.  moshata  L.  Musk  mallow.  S.  W.  Va.  J.  K.  Small. 
Adventitious. 

CALLIRRHOE  Nutt. 

Callirrhoe  alcaeoides  (Michx.)  A.  Gray.  Copses  along 
Brown's  Creek,  Nashville.  In  a  glade  near  Edgefield  Junc- 
tion, Davidson  County.     T.  S.  Imborden. 

MALVASTRUM  A.  Gray. 

Malvastrum  angustum  A.  Gray.  Glades  of  M.  Tenn.  Very 
frequent  around  Nashville.     July,  August. 


TENNE8BEE    FLORA. 

SIDA  L. 

Sida  spinosa  L.  A  bad  weed,  covering  acres.  I  i  S.  Sum- 
mer. 

S.  Elliottii  T.  &  G.  Frequent  in  the  cedar  glades.  July. 
August. 

S.  hermaphrodita  (L.)   Rusby.     In  a  Fence  row  near  I. 
villa.     June-August. 

ABUTILON  Grertn. 

Abutilon  Abutilon  (L.)  Rusby.  Indian  mallow.  Abutilon 
Avicennte  Gjprtn.  'Adventive  from  S.  Asia.  O.  S.  August- 
October. 

HIBISCUS  L. 

Hibiscus  Moscheutos  L.  Swamp  rose  mallow.  River 
banks  and  swamps.     O.  S.     July.  August. 

H.  lasiocarpus  Cav.     Swamps.  Hickman  County.     August. 

H.    militaris    Cav.      H.    Virginicus     Walt.      Along    v. 
courses.      O.    S.     A    white-flowered    variety    near    Nashville. 
June,  July. 

H.  Trionum  L.  Flower-of-an-hour.  Adventive  from  S. 
Europe.     July-September. 

H.  Syriacus  L.  Shrubby  althaea.  Rose  of  Sharon.  Intro- 
duced from  W.  Asia.  Sometimes  escaped  from  cultivation. 
O.  S.     July-September. 

H.  esculentus  L.  Okra.  Two  varieties  arc  in  cultivation 
in  gardens.     June,  July. 

GOSSYPIUM  L. 

Gossypium  Barbadense  L.  The  cotton  plant.  The  short 
staple  or  upland  cotton  is  largely  cultivated  in  the  Stair.      1/ 

THEACE.K  DC. 
STUARTIA  L. 

Stuartia     Malachodendron     L.       Stuartia     Virginica     ' 

White  Cliff  Springs.     Coal  Creek.     A.  Ruth. 

S.  pentagyna  L'Her.  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  MtS. 
June. 

HYPERR :ACE M  Lindl. 

ASCYRUM  L. 

Ascyrum  stans  Michx.  St.  Peter'-  wort.  Moist  thickets  in 
the  mountains.     Siliceous  soil.     July,  August. 

A.  hypericoides  L.     A.  Crux-Andreae  L.  St.  Andrew'-  Ci 
Dry,  siliceous  soil.     O.  S.     June-August. 


120  Tennessee  Flora. 

HYPERICUM  L. 

Hypericum  Kalmianum  L.  St.  John's  wort.  Typical  low 
form.     Cumberland  Mts.     Mrs.  Lydia  Bennett. 

H.  Kalmianum  Majus.  Stout  shrubs,  5  to  7  feet  high. 
Oak  barrens  at  Tullahoma,  Coffee  County.     July. 

H.  prolificum  L.  Cleveland,  E.  Tenn.  Craggie  Hope, 
Cheatham  County.     July-September. 

H.  densiflorum  Pursh.  Post  Oak  Springs,  Roane  County. 
Hiwassee  Valley.     A.  Ruth.     July-September. 

H.  galioides  L.  Along  water  courses  in  siliceous  ground. 
Frequent  in  E.  Tenn.     June,  July. 

H.  adpressum  Bart.  Wild-goose  pond  near  Mitchellville, 
Sumner  County.     July-September. 

H.  sphaerocarpum  Michx.  Frequent  in  the  barrens  of  M. 
Tenn.     Also  in  E.  Tenn.     July-September. 

H.  dolabriforme  Vent.  Chilhowee  Mt.,  Parksville.  Dry, 
gravelly  hills,  east  of  Cleveland,  E.  Tenn.     July,  August. 

H.  virgatum  Lam.  H.  angulosum  Michx.  Damp  places  in 
the  oak  barrens  at  Tullahoma.  Var.  acutifolium  Coult.  With 
the  former. 

H.  perforatum  L.  Common  St.  John's  wort.  Waste  places. 
Uncommon.     Introduced.     June. 

H.  maculatum  Walt.  H.  corymbosum  Michx.  An  abun- 
dant weed  in  fields.     O.  S.     July-September. 

H.  graveolens  Buckl.  Summit  of  Thunderhead.  White 
Top  Mt.,  S.  Wr.  Va.     J.  K.  Small.     June,  July. 

H.  mutilum  L.     Edge  of  pools.     O.  S.     June,  July. 

H.  gymmanthum  Engelm.  &  Grav.     Barrens  of  M.  Tenn. 

July- 

H.  Canadense  L.     Cumberland  Mts.     July-September. 

H.  Drummondii  T.  &  G.  Belvedere,  Franklin  County. 
July-September. 

*H.  lobocarpum  Gattinger.  Hollow  Rock,  W.  Tenn.  July, 
August. 

H.  glomeratum  J.  K.  Small.     I  suppose  to  be  the  same   as 

*H.  lobocarpum  Gattinger.  n.  sp.  Sepals,  linear-lanceolate,  small, 
unequal,  ly2-3  lines  long;  petals,  unequal,  unsymmetric,  3-6  lines  long, 
reflected,  early  deciduous;  capsule,  five-celled,  deeply  five-lobed,  lance- 
olate, tapering  into  a  long  beak;  carpels,  almost  distinct,  and  at  full 
maturity  falling  away  from  a  central  axis;  seeds,  1  mm.  long,  incurved, 
apiculate,  striate  lengthwise,  transversely  grooved;  leaves,  linear,  ob- 
tuse, slightly  mucronate,  attenuate  downward,  pale  underneath.  Shrub 
5-7  feet  high,  with  upright  branches.  Low,  swampy  lands  in  the  Orange 
Sand  formation  at  Hollow  Rock,  Carroll  County,  W.  Tenn.  First  col- 
lected in  fruit  in  1867,  and  again  in  July,  1886,  in  flower,  in  very 
swampy  ground.  I  have  since  received  specimens  of  a  Hypericum  la- 
beled H.  prolificum,  "  collected  by  D.  H.  E.  Hasse,  of  Little  Rock,  Ark., 
in  wet  pine  barrens,"  which  proved  to  be  the  same  speoies.     M. 


Tennessi  b  Flora.  121 

I  enumerated  in  the  first  edition  as   II.  prolificum  var.  mon 

tannm,  collected  in  the  Frog  Mts.  about  1870. 

SAROTHRA  L. 

Sarothra  gentianoides  L.  Hypericum  nudicaule  Walt. 
Pine  weed.  Orange  grass.  In  sandy  soil.  O.  S,  July,  Au- 
gust. 

TRIADENUM  Raf. 

Triadenum  Virginicum   <  L. )    Raf.     Elodea  Virginica   Nutt. 

River  swamps.     Scatteringly  O.  S.     July-September. 

T.  petiolatum  (Walt.)  Britton.  Cypress  swamps.  July. 
August. 

CISTACEJE  Lindl. 

HELIANTHEMUM  Pers. 

Helianthemum  Canadense  (  L.)  Michx.     Frost  weed.     ( 
mon  in  dry,  siliceous  soil.     E.  Tenn.     April,  May.     M. 

LECHEA  L. 

Lechea  villosa  Ell.  L.  Major  Michx.  Dry,  open  grounds. 
O.  S.     July,  August. 

L.  minor  L.    L.  thymifolia  Michx.    Pinweed.    Barrens  of  M. 

Tenn.  and  mountains  of  E.  Tenn.     July,  August. 

L.  racemulosa  Michx.  Wolf  Creek,  Cocke  County.  T.  IT. 
Kearney.     Waters  of  Holston  River.     J.  K.  Small. 

L.  tenuifolia  Michx.  Cumberland  Mts..  M.  Tenn.  June- 
August. 

VIOLACE.E  L. 
VIOLA. 

Viola  palmata  L.  Early  blue  violet.  V.  cucullata  var.  pal- 
mata  A.  Gray.     O.  S.     April. 

V.  pedatifida  Don.  V.  delphinifolia  Nutt.  Prairie  violet. 
Sewanee.     Gen.  E.  Kirby-Smith.     March-May. 

V.  obliqua  Hill.     V.  cucullata  Ait.     I  >.  S.      Vpril-June. 

*V.  domestica  Bicknell.     Yard  violet.     Nashville. 

V.  villosa  Walt.  Pond  Mt..  S.  W.  Va.  1.  K.  Small.  Knox- 
ville.     A.  Ruth. 

V.  sagittata  Ait.  Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.  and  mountains  ol 
E.  Tenn.     April,  May. 

V.  ovata  Nutt.  V.  sagittata  var.  ovata  T.  &  G.  Summit  ol 
White  Top  Mts.,  S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small. 

*V.     domestica    Bicknell.      Yard     violet      Nashville,     in 
grounds.    Resembles  closely  V.  obliqua,  but  differs  In  the  Bhort-pedun 
cled  subterranean  peduncles  and  broadly-reniform  blad< 


122  Tennessee  Flora. 

V.  pedata  L.  Bird's-foot  violet,  and  var.  bicolor  Pursh. 
Siliceous  soils.  Highlands.  Harpeth  hills,  near  Nashville. 
April.     M. 

V.  odorata  L.  Sweet  violet.  Native  of  Europe.  Fre- 
quently escaping  from  cultivation.     March-May. 

V.  rotundifolia  Michx.     Cumberland  Mts.     March-May. 

V.  blanda  Willd.  Dry,  rocky  grounds.  Hills  around  Nash- 
ville.    April,  May. 

V.  blanda  amcena  Le  Conte.  V.  blanda  var.  palustriformis 
A.  Gray.     Iron  Mts.,  S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small. 

V.  renifolia  A.  Gray.  V.  blanda  renifolia  A.  Gray.  Sum- 
mit of  Thunderhead.     Smoky  Mts.     April-June. 

V.  primulaefolia  L.  Sewanee.  E.  Kirby-Smith.  Grand- 
view.     Mrs.  H.  R.  Stratton.     May. 

V.  emarginata  (Nutt.)  Le  Conte.  Wolf  Creek.  T.  H. 
Kearney. 

V.  lanceolata  L.  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.  Knox- 
ville.     March-May. 

V.  hastata  Michx.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn. 

V.  hastata  var.  tripartita  Grav.  Sewanee.  E.  Kirby-Smith. 
May. 

V.  pubescens  Ait.  Woods.  O.  S.  Nashville.  Var.  Crio- 
carpa  Nutt.     Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.     March-May. 

V.  Canadensis  L.  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.  May- 
July. 

V.  striata  Ait.     Nashville.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

V.  multicaulis  (T.  &  G.)  Britton.  V.  Muhlenbergii  var. 
multicaulis  T.  &  G.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     March-June. 

V.  rostrata  Pursh.  Sewanee.  E.  Kirby-Smith.  Hiwassee 
Valley.     A.  Ruth. 

V.  tenella  Miihl.  V.  tricolor  var.  arvensis  Hook.  Field 
pansy.     Dry  pastures.     O.  S.     March-May. 

CUBELIUM  Raf.     (Solea  Spreng.) 

Cubelium  concolor  (Forst.)  Raf.  Solea  concolor  Ging. 
Damp  woods.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

PASSIFLORACE^E  Dumort. 

PASSIFLORA  L. 

Passiflora  incarnata  L.  Passion  flower.  Dry  soil.  O.  S. 
A  troublesome  weed  when  entering  gardens  and  fields.  Fl. 
May.     Fruit  in  August.     Called  "  May  pops." 


TENNE8S1  I.    PlOH  \.  12  I 

P.  lutea  L.    Yellow  passion  flower.    Thick*  lav- 

July. 

CACTACK.K  Lindl. 

OPUNTIA   Mill. 

Opuntia  Opuntia  (L.)  Coulter.     (  >.  vulgaris  Mill.     Easl 
prickly    pear.     A    waif    near    a    railroad    station,      1. 
Common  on  the  Atlantic  Coast.     June.  Jul  v. 

O.  humifusa  Raf.  O.  Rafinesquii  Engelm.  Western  prickly 
pear.  Abundant  in  rocky  glades.  (  >.  s.  Varying  with  or- 
bicular and  obovate  joints.     June,  July. 

THYMELEACE.E  Reichenb. 

DIRCA  L. 

Dirca  palustris   L.     Leatherwood.     Moosewood.     Swampy 
or   moist   thickets   in   the    Alleghany    and    Cumberland 
April,  May. 

LYTHRACE.E  Lindl. 

AMMANIA  L. 

Ammania  coccinea  Rottb.    Swamps  or  ditches.    (  >.  S.    July- 
September. 
A.  latifolia  L.     Wet  places.     Tullahoma,  etc.     July,  Aug 

DIDIPLIS   Raf. 

Didiplis  diandra  Wood.  D.  linearis  Rat.  I  ).  S  June-Au- 
gust. 

ROTALA  L. 

Rotala  ramosior  (L.)  Kcehne.  Ammania  humilis  Michx. 
Pools  and  ditches.     O.  S.     July-September. 

DECODON  J.  T.  Gmelin. 

Decodon  verticillatus  (L.)  Ell.  Nesaea  verticillata  H  B.  K. 
Loosestrife.  Waters  of  Barren  Fork  of  Caney  Fork,  mar 
Nicholson  Springs.     September. 

LYTHRUM  L. 

Lythrum  alatum   Pursh.      Angled  loosestrife.      Bordei 

springs  and  rivulets.     Cleveland.   E.  Tenn.     July. 

PARSONIA  P.   Br.     (Cuphaea  Jacq.) 

Parsonia  petiolata  (L.)  Rusb}       Cuphaea  vi 

Clammy  cuphaea.     Tar  weed.      Dry   woods.     I  '.    S        \ 
September. 


124  Tennessee  Flora. 

MELASTOMACEJB  R.  Br. 
RHEXIA  L. 

Rhexia  Mariana  L.  Maryland  meadow  beauty.  Wet  lands. 
O.  S.  July. 

Rh.  Virginica  L.  Meadow  beauty.  Low  grounds.  O.  S. 
July-September. 

LAGERSTROEMIA   L. 

Lagerstroemia  Indica  L.  The  crepe  myrtle.  Frequently 
cultivated.     Ornamental  shrub.     From  E.  India. 

PUNICA  L. 

Punica  Granatum  L.  From  S.  Europe  and  N.  Africa.  Cul- 
tivated, but  frequently  killed  by  hard  frosts ;  belongs  to  this 
family. 

ONAGRACEJE  Dumort. 

ISNARDA  L. 

Isnarda  palustris  L.  Ludwigia  palustris  Ell.  Marsh  purs- 
lane.    Ponds  and  ditches.     O.  S.     June-November. 

LUDWIGIA  L. 

Ludwigia  linearis  Walt.  Bogs  and  pools.  O.  S.  July-Sep- 
tember. 

L.  hirtella  Raf.  Tullahoma.  Paradise  Ridge.  June-Sep- 
tember. 

L.  alternifolia  L.  Rattle  box.  Ponds.  O.  S.  June-Sep- 
tember. 

L.  glandulosa  AValt.  L.  cylindrita  Ell.  Oak  barrens.  O. 
S.     August. 

L.  polycarpa  Short  &  Peter.  Swamps.  O.  S.  July-Octo- 
ber. 

L.  natans  Ell.     Ponds.     O.  S.     July-September. 

JUSSIAEA  L. 

Jussiaea  diffusa  Forskl.  J.  repens  Sw.  Swamps  near  Nash- 
ville.    June-August. 

J.  decurrens  (Walt.)  DC.  In  swamps.  O.  S.  July-Sep- 
tember. 

EPILOBIUM  L. 

Epilobium  coloratum  Miihl.  Purple-leaved  willow  herb. 
Burnt  grounds.     O.  S.     July-September. 

ONAGRA  Adans. 
Onagra  biennis  (L.)  Scop.     (Enothera  biennis  L.     Evening 


Tennessee  Flora.  L25 

primrose.     O.  S.     Dry  soil.     Naturalized  from  Europe,    fune- 
October. 

O.  biennis  grandiflora  (Ait.)  Small.  Scatteringly  over  the 
:same  range  with  the  former. 

OENOTHERA  L. 

CEnothera  laciniata  Ell.  ( E.  sinuata  L.  Near  Hyde's  i ■'•■rrv. 
Nashville.      May.  June. 

CE.  linearis  Michx.     E.  Tenn.     Marion,  S.   \\  .   \'a.      (.   K. 

Small. 

KNEIFFIA  Spach.     (CEnothera  L.) 

Kneifna  linearis  (Michx.)  Spach.  CEnothera  linearis  Michx. 
E.  Tenn.      Marion,  S.  W.  Va.     J.  EC.  Small. 

K.  pumila  (L.)  Spach.  (Enothera  pumila  L.  Mts.  of  K. 
Tenn.     Ocoee  Valley.     Tullahoma.     June-August. 

K.  fruticosa  (L.)  Raimann.  CEnothera  fruticosa  L.  Com- 
mon snndrops. 

K.  fruticosa  var.  hirsuta  Nutt.     Cleveland.  Bradley  County. 

K.  glauca  (Michx.)  Spach.  (Enothera  glauca  Michx. 
Lookout  Mt.     Frog  Mts.,  E.  Tenn.     May-September. 

HARTMANNIA  Spach.      ((Enothera  L.  I 

Hartmannia    speciosa    (Nutt.)    Small.     CEnothera    spe 
Nutt.     Showy    primrose.     Unoccupied    town    Lots.      Escaped 

from  gardens.     Nashville.     May- July. 

LAVAUXIA  Spach.      ((Enothera  L.) 

Lavauxia  triloba   (Nutt.)    Spach.     CEnothera   triloba    Nutt. 

Open  grounds  around  Nashville.      Frequent.      May-July. 

GAURA  L. 

Gaura  biennis  L.     Cumberland   Mts.      E.  Tenn.     July-Sep- 
tember. 
G.  Michauxii  Spach.     G.  filipes  Spach.     Chattanooga.     Dr. 

G.  Engelman.     July.  August. 

CIRCAEA  L. 

Circaea  Lutetiana  L.     Bind  weed.     Nigh!   shade.     Woods. 

O.  S.     June-August. 

C.  alpina  L.  High  summits  of  the  Alleghanies,  E.  Tenn. 
July-September. 

HALLORAGID  M  I  .E. 
PROSERPINACA  E. 

Proserpinaca  palustris    L.     Mermaid    weed.     Swamps.     I  ' 

S.     July. 


126  Tennessee  Flora. 

P.  pectinacea  Lam.  Ditches  along  the  railroad  at  Tulla- 
homa.     Summer. 

MYRIOPHYLLUM  L. 

Myriophyllum  verticillatum  L.  Water  milfoil.  Tullahoma 
Creek,  Tullahoma.     May. 

M.  pinnatum  (Walt.)  B.  S.  P.  M.  scabratum  Michx.  Hay- 
wood County.     S.  M.  Baine. 

ARALIACEJE  Vent. 
ARALIA  L. 

Aralia  spinosa  L.  Angelica  tree.  Frequent  in  rocky  hills 
and  glades.     O.  S.     June-August.     M. 

A.  racemosa  L.  American  spikenard.  E.  Tenn.  and  high- 
lands of  M.  Tenn.  Charlotte  Pike,  two  miles  from  Nashville. 
July,  August.     M. 

A.  hispida  Vent.  Bristly  sarsaparilla.  Throughout  the 
mountains  of  E.  Tenn.     Frog  Mts.     June,  July.     M. 

A.  nudicaulis  L.     Sewanee.     June,  July.     M. 

PANAX  L. 

Panax  quinquefolium  L.  Ginseng.  Rich  woodlands.  O. 
S.,  but  scarce.  In  the  Harpeth  hills,  south  of  Nashville. 
July,  August.     M. 

UMBELLIFER.E  B.  Juss. 

DAUCUS  L. 

Daucus  Carota  L.  Wild  carrot.  The  mother  plant  of  the 
garden  carrot.  Introduced,  naturalized,  and  growing  more 
robust  here  than  in  its  native  home  in  Germany.  June-Sep- 
tember.    M. 

ANGELICA  L.      (Archangelica  Hoffm.) 

Angelica  Curtisii  Buckl.     Roane  Mt.     Chickering. 
A.  villosa  (Walt.)  B.  S.  P.     Angelica  hirsuta  Miihl.     Angel- 
ica.    Dry  barrens.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

OXYPOLIS  Raf.      (Archemora  DC.) 

Oxypolis  rigidus  (L.)  Britton.  Archemora  rigida  DC. 
Cowbane.     Woodlands.     O.  S.     August,  September. 

HERACLEUM  L. 

Heracleum  lanatum  Michx.  Cow  parsnip.  High  moun- 
tains of  E.  Tenn.     June.     M. 


Tennessee  Flora.  127 

PASTINACA  L. 

Pastinaca  sativa  L.     Parsnips.     Native  of  Britain  and 
many.     Cultivated  and  naturalized,     [n  moist  woodlands.     0 

S.     June-September.      1/. 

POLYTiENIA  DC. 

Polytaenia  Nuttallii  DC.     Baker's  Station.   Paradise   R 

Robertson  County.     April,  May. 

THASPIUM  Xutt. 

Thaspium   trifoliatum    (L.)    Britton.      Th.    atropurpureum 

Nutt.     Purple  meadow  parsnip.     In  woods.     <  '   S. 

Th.  trifoliatum  aureum  Britton.     Th.  aureum  Nutt.     I  I    - 
June,  Jul)r.     M. 

Th.  barbinode  (Michx.)  Xutt.  Woods.  O.  S.  July.  Au- 
gust. 

Th.  barbinode  angustifolium  Coult.  &  Rose.  Barrens  of  M. 
Tenn.     Frequent.     May. 

Th.  pinnatifidum  (Buckl.)  A.  Gray.  In  similar  localities 
like  the  former.     May,  June. 

LIGUSTICUM  L. 

Ligusticum  Canadense  (L.)  Britton.  L.  actaeifolium  Michx. 
Lookout  Mt.     Roane  Mt.     June-August. 

ERYNGIUM  L. 

Eryngium  aquaticum  L.     E.  yuccjpfolium    Michx.     Rattle- 
snakemaster.     Dry  uplands.     O.  S.     June-September.      1/ 
E.  Virginicum  Lam.     Near  Mt.  Mitchell.     A.  Ruth. 
E.  prostratum  Nutt.    Low  grounds.    Brownsville,  W.  Tenn. 
E.  virgatum  Lam.     Henderson,  W.  Tenn.     S.  M.  Bain. 

SANICULA  L. 

Sanicula  Marylandica  L.     Black  snakeroot.      Moist   w< 
O.  S.     May-July.     M. 

S.  Canadensis  L.  S.  Marylandica  var.  Canadensis  Torr. 
Woods.     O.  S.     June-August.     .1/. 

S.  gregaria  Bicknell  and 

S.  trifoliata  Bicknell  arc  likely  to  occur  within  the  St 

FCENICULUM  Adans. 

Foenieulum  Fc3eniculum  (L.)  Karst.  P.  vulgare  '  tort  Fen- 
nel. In  waste  places.  Escaped  from  gardens.  0.  S  July- 
September.     M. 


128  Tennessee  Flora. 

F.  dulce  Gaert.  Sweet  fennel.  Sometimes  cultivated. 
Yields.     Oleum  Foeniculi.     July.     M. 

PIMPINELLA  L. 

Pimpinella  integerrima  (L.)  Asa  Gray.  Zizia  integerrima 
DC.  Yellow  pimpernell.  From  the  high  mountains  to  the 
rocky  banks  of  the  rivers.     O.  S.     May,  June. 

P.  Anisum  L.  Anis.  Sometimes  cultivated.  The  seeds 
yield  the  Ol.  Anisi.     June.     M. 

APIASTRUM  Nutt.     (Leptocaulis  Nutt.) 

Apiastrum  patens  (Nutt.)  Coulter  &  Rose.  Leptocaulis  pat- 
ens Nutt.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     June. 

EULOPHUS  Nutt. 

Eulophus  Americanus  Nutt.  Thickets  along  Charlotte  and 
Murfreesboro  Pikes,  Nashville.     May,  June. 

ANTHRISCUS  HofTm. 

Anthriscus  Cerefolium  (L.)  HofTm.  Chaerophyllum  sativum 
Lam.  Garden  chervil.  Cultivated  as  a  pot  herb,  and  some- 
times escaped.     May,  June. 

BUPLEURUM  L. 

Bupleurum  rotundifolium  L.  Thorough  wort.  Fort  Neg- 
ley,  Nashville.  Cedar  glades.  Naturalized  from  Europe. 
June,  July. 

CHiEROPHYLLUM  L. 

Chasrophyllum  procumbens  (L.)  Crantz.  Wild  chervill. 
Moist,  rock  woodlands.     Nashville.     April-June. 

Ch.  Teinturieri  Hook.  Characteristic  of  the  cedar  glades 
of  M.  Tenn.     March-May. 

WASHINGTONIA  Raf.     (Osmorrhiza  Raf.) 

Washingtonia  Claytoni  (Michx.)  Britt.  Osmorrhiza  brev- 
istylis  DC.  Sweet  cicely.  Along  Holston  River,  S.  W.  Va. 
J.  K.  Small. 

W.  longistylis  (Torr.)  Britton.  Smooth  sweet  cicely.  Os- 
morrhiza longistvlis  DC  Rich  woods.  O.  S.  Nashville. 
April,  May.     M. 

SIUM  L. 

Sium  cicutaefolium  Gmel.  Hemlock.  Water  parsnip. 
Marion,  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small.     July,  August. 


Tennessee  Flora. 

APIUM  L. 

Apium  Petroselinum  L.  Common  or  garden  parsley.  Cul- 
tivated in  kitchen  gardens,  and  sometimes  escaped,  Juiy  \u- 
gust. 

A.  graveolens  L.     Celery.     Cultivated,  escaping  into    • 
places.     May-July.     .1/. 

ZIZIA  Koch. 

Zizia  aurea  (L.)  Koch.  Thaspium  aureum  var.  apterum  A. 
Grav.  Golden  meadow  parsnip.  Rocky  glens  and  hillsides 
O.  S.     May. 

Z.  Bebbii  (Coult.  &  Rose)  Britton.     Mts.  of  E.  Trim.     May. 

Z.  cordata   (Walt.)    DC.     Thaspium  trifoliatum   var. 
rum  A.  Gray.     O.  S.     May.  June. 

CARUM  L. 

Carum  Carvi  L.  Caraway.  Adventive  from  Europe,  -<  one- 
times appearing-  in  fields,  near  dwellings.      May- July.      1/. 

CICUTA  L. 

Cicuta    maculata    L.      Water    hemlock.      Musquash    root. 

Along  streams.     O.  S.     July.      \f. 

DERINGA  Adans.     (Cryptotaenia   DC.) 

Deringa  Canadensis  (L.)  ECuntze.     Cryptot»nia  Canad< 

DC.     Housewort.     Low.  damp  woods.     I  ).  S.     June.  July. 

SPERMOLEPIS  Raf.     (Leptocaulis  Nutt.) 

Spermolepis  divaricatus  (Walt.)  Britton.  Leptocaulis  div- 
aricatus    DC.     Occasionally    found    in    pastures.     Nashville. 

April,  May. 

PTILIMNIUM  Raf.     ( I  >isc<  >pleura  I  M 

Ptilimnium  capillaceum  (Michx.)  Hollick.  Mock  bishop 
weed.     A  single  plant  found  in  Nashville.     July. 

P.    Nuttallii    (DC.)     Britton.      Discopleura    Nuttallii    DC 

Damp  woods  east  of  Cleveland.  Bradley  County.     July. 

HYDROCOTYLE  L. 

Hydrocotyle  umbellata  L.  Marsh  pennywort.  Ditches 
near  Hvde's  Ferry,  Nashville.     June-September. 

H.  Americana  L.     Polk  County,  E.  Tenn.     Jun<  ber. 

H.  ranunculoides  L.  til.     Tullahoma  Creek,  Coffee  (  ounty. 

Tune. 


130  Tennessee  Flora. 

ERIGENIA  Nutt. 

Erigenia  bulbosa  (Michx.)  Nutt.  Harbinger  of  spring.  O. 
S.     March,  April. 

CORIANDRUM  Hoffm. 

Coriandrum  sativum  L.  Cumin.  Used  as  a  condiment,  and 
hence  escaping  into  garden  plots.     M. 

CUMINUM  L. 

Cuminum  sativum  L.  Cumin.  A  condiment.  Sparsely  es- 
caping into  open  grounds. 

CORNACE.E  Link. 
CORNUS  L. 

Cornus  florida  L.  Flowering  dogwood.  O.  S.  March, 
April. 

C.  Amonum  Mill.  C.  sericea  L.  Kinnikiniks.  Moist 
grounds.     O.  S.     May-July. 

C.  asperifolia  Michx.     Along  streams.     O.  S.     May,  June. 

C.  stolonifera  Michx.  Red  osier  dogwood.  Banks  of 
streams.     O.  S.     May,  June. 

C.  alternifolia  L.  fil.  Copses  and  hillsides.  E.  Tenn.  May, 
June. 

NYSSA  L. 

Nyssa  sylvatica  Marsh.  N.  multiflora  Wang.  Sour  gum. 
Low,  moist  grounds.  Medium-sized  tree,  30  to  35  feet  high. 
O.  S.     April-June. 

N.  biflora  Walt.  N.  sylvatica  var.  biflora  Sargt.  N.  Caro- 
liniana  Poir.  Along  mountain  streams,  E.  Tenn.,  and  in 
swamps  in  W.  Tenn.     Hollow  Rock.     April,  May. 

N.  aquatica  L.  N.  unirlora  Wang.  Large  tupelo  gum. 
Large  tree,  frequently  80  to  100  feet  high  in  the  lowlands  of 
W.  Tenn.  Also  on  uplands  on  Paradise  Ridge,  near  Nashville. 
April,  May. 

CLETHRACE.E  Klotsch. 

CLETHRA  L. 

Clethra  acuminata  Michx.  Mountain  sweet  pepper  bush. 
Throughout  the  Alleghanies.     July,  August. 

PYROLACEtE  Agardh. 
PYROLA  L. 
Pyrola    rotundifolia    L.     Round-leaved    wintergreen.     Mts. 


Tennessee  Flora.  m 

ofE.Tenn.     South  fork  of  Holston  River     IK  Small      Fune 

July. 

P.  elliptica  Nutt.     Wolf  Creek,  Cocke  County.     June,  July. 

CHIMAPHILA  Pursh. 

Chimaphi'a  rraculata  |  L. )  Pursh.     Pipsissawa.     Dry  wo 
especially  under  pines.     O.  S.     June-August. 

Ch.  umbellata  I  L.  |  Nutt.    Prince's  pine.    Tracy  .City.    July. 

MONOTROPACEJE  Lindl. 

MONOTROPSIS  Schwein.     (Schweinitzia   Nutt.) 

Monotropsis  odorata  Ell.    Schweinitzia  odorata  I  M 
pine  sap.     Rugby.     Mrs.  M.  L.  Percival.     February-May. 

MONOTROPA  L. 

Monotropa  uniflora  L.     Indian  pipe.     In  leaf-mold.     (  I    - 
Nashville.     Harpeth  hills.     June-August. 

HYPOPITIS  Adans. 

Hypopitis  Hypopitis  (L.)  Small.     Monotropa  Hypopitis  L. 

False  beechdrops.    Cumberland  Mts.    Oakdale  Station.    June- 
October. 

ERICACEAE  DC. 
AZALEA  L. 

Azalea    nudiflora    L.     Wild    honeysuckle.     Siliceous    - 
O.  S.     April,  May. 

A.  lutea  L.  A.  calendulacea  Michx.  Azalea.  Cumberland 
and  Alleghany  Mts.  Ravines  in  the  valleys.  In  argillaceous 
or  siliceous  soils. 

A.  arborescens  Pursh.  Tree-Azalea.  Sometimes  a  small 
tree  20  feet  high.  Big  Frog  Mts.  Mead  of  Piney  Creek,  in  the 
Cumberland  Alts.     Mrs.  L.  Bennett.     June. 

A.  viscosa  L.  Rhododendron  viscosum  Torr.  Swamp 
honeysuckle.  Along  mountain  streams  in  the  Alleghanies. 
Parksville,  Polk  County.     June.  July.  ^ 

RHODODENDRON  L. 

Rhododendron     maximum     L.      Great     laurel.      Attaining 
sometimes  the  size  of  a  tree  25  to  30  feet  high  by  1  m.  diam 
eter.     Big  Frog  Mts.     Over  the  Cumberland  and  Alleghany 
Mts.     June,  July. 

Rh.  Catawbiense  Michx.  Mountain  rose  bay.  Summit  of 
Smoky  Mts.     Roane  Mt.     Wolf  Creek.     July,  August. 

Rh.  punctatum  Andr.     Along  Little  River,  E.  Tenn.     1 
Hill.     Wolf  Creek.     A.  Ruth. 


13*2  Tennessee  Flora. 

MENZIESIA  J.  E.  Smith. 

Menziesia  pilosa  (Michx.)  Pers.  M.  globularis  Salisb. 
High  mountains  of  E.  Tenn.  Clingman  Dome.  Roane  Mt. 
May.  June. 

DENDRIUM  Desv.      (Leiophyllum  Pers.) 

Dendrium  buxifolium  (Berg.)  Desv.  Sand  myrtle.  Leio- 
phyllum buxifolium  Ell.  Summit  of  Roane  Mt.  Chickering. 
April-June. 

KALMIA  L. 

Kalmia  latifolia  L.  Calico  bush.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  and 
highlands  of  M.  Tenn.     Always  in  siliceous  soils.     May,  June. 

LEUCOTHOE  D.  Don. 

Leucothoe  Catesbaei  (Walt.)  A.  Gray.  Common  along 
streams  in  the  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.     April,  May. 

L.  recurva  (Buckl.)  A.  Gray.     With  the  former.     May.  June. 

L.  racemosa  (L.)  A.  Gray.  Along  Emory  River,  Roane 
County.  T.  H.  Kearney.  Along  French  Broad  River.  April- 
June. 

PIERIS  D.  Don.      (Andromeda  Pursh.) 

Pieris  floribunda  (Pursh.)  Beirth.  &  Hooker.  Andromeda 
floribunda  Pursh.  Mountain  fetter  bush.  High  mountains  of 
E.  Tenn.     May. 

P.  Mariana  (L.)  Benth.  &  Hook.  Cumberland  and  Alle- 
ghany Mts.     May-July. 

XOLISMA  Raf.     (Lyonia  Nutt.) 

Xolisma  ligustrina  (L.)  Britton.  Andromeda  ligustrina 
Miihl.  Lyonia  ligustrina  DC.  Privet  Andromeda.  Big  Frog 
Mts.,  E.  Tenn.     July. 

OXYDENDRUM  DC. 

Oxydendrum  arboreum  (L.)  DC.  Sour  wood.  Tree  reach- 
ing 50  to  60  feet.  Frequent  in  siliceous  soils.  O.  S.  June, 
July. 

EPIG^EA  L. 

Epigaea  repens  L.  Trailing  arbutus.  Ground  laurel.  Cum- 
berland and  Alleghany  Mts.  *  March-May. 

GAULTHERIA  L. 

Gaultheria  procumbens  L.  Wintergreen.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn. 
Abundant.     June-September. 


Ten  lessee  Plob  \. 

VACCINIACEJE  Lindl. 

GAYLUSSACIA   II.   B.   K. 

Gaylussacia  frondosa  (L.)  T,  &  G.  Vaccinium  frondosum 
L.  Dangleberry.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  May,  June.  Fruit  in 
July,  August. 

G.  resinosa  (Ait.)  T.  &  G.  Vaccinium  resinosum  Ait.  Black 
or  high-bush  huckleberry.  Siliceous  soils.  O.  S.  May,  June. 
Fruit  in  July,  August. 

G.  brachycera  (Michx.)  A.  Gray.     Vaccinium  brachycerum 
Michx.     Box  huckleberry.     Slopes  of  the  Alleghanies.     P 
ville,  on  Ocoee  River.     May. 

G.  ursina  (M.  A.  Curtis)  T.  &  G.  Bear  huckleberry.  A  Few 
miles  southeast  from  Ducktown,  in  Georgia. 

VACCINIUM  L. 

Vaccinium  virgatum  tenellum  (Ait.)  A.  Gray.  Southern 
black  huckleberry.  Paradise  Ridge,  Davidson  County.  April. 
May.     Fruit  in  July. 

V.  corymbosum  L.  High-bush  blueberry.  Gravelly  hills. 
O.  S.     A  fay,  June.     Fruit  in  July. 

V.  vacillans  Kalm.  S.  W.  Va.  J.  K.  Small.  May.  June. 
Fruit  in  July,  August. 

V.  pallidum  Ait.  V.  Constablei  A.  Gray.  Mts.  of  F.  Tenn. 
May,  June.     Fruit  in  July 

V.   melanocarpum   Chas.   Mohr.     n.   sp.     Bluff   Mi 
County.     T.  H.  Kearney.     May. 

V.  stamineum  L.  Deerberry.  Dry  woods  and  thickets. 
O.  S.     April-June. 

V.  arboreum  Marsh.  Farkleberry.  Siliceous  soils.  I  »  5. 
May,  June. 

V.  hirsutum  Buckl.  Frog  Mts.  Sugar  Loaf  Mt.  at  Parks- 
ville,  Polk  County,  with  Gaylussacia  brachycera.     May,  June. 

OXYCOCCUS  Hill. 

Oxycoccus  macrocarpus  (Ait.)  Fers.     Vaccinium  macr< 
pum  Ait.     American  cranberry.     Swamp  at  Cranberry  Mines, 
on  Tennessee  and   North  Carolina  State  line.     June-August 
Fruit  in  October. 

O.  erythrocarpus  (Michx.)  Pers.  Vaccinium  erythrocarpum 
Michx.  Southern  mountain  cranberry.  High  mountains  of 
E.  Tenn.     June,  July.     Fruit  in  September. 

DIAPENSIACEjE  Link. 
GALAX   L. 
Galax  aphylla  L.     Colt's  foot.      Throughout   the  Allegha- 
nies.    May-July. 


134  Tennessee  Flora. 

PRIMULACE.E  Vent. 

SAMOLUS  L. 

Samolus  floribundus  H.  B.  K.  S.  Valerandi  var.  America- 
nus  A.  Gray.  Water  pimpernell.  Wet  places.  O.  S.  May- 
September. 

LYSIMACHIA  L. 

Lysimachia  Fraseri  Duhy.  Golden  Loosestrife.  Lookout 
Mt.     ClifYs  along  Ocoee  River.     June,  July. 

L.  quadrifolia  L.  Crosswort.  Wroodlands.  O.  S.  June- 
August. 

L.  Nummularia  L.  Moneywort.  Naturalized  from  Europe. 
Escaped  from  gardens.     May,  June. 

STEIRONEMA  Raf. 

Steironema  ciliatum  (L.)  Raf.  Moist  thickets.  O.  S.  June- 
August. 

S.  tonsum  (Wood)  Bicknell.  S.  intermedium  Kearney. 
Alts,  of  E.  Term.     T.  H.  Kearney. 

S.  tonsum  simplex  Kearney.  Wolf  Creek.  T.  H.  Kearney. 
June.  July. 

S.  radicans  (Hook.)  A.  Gray.  Henderson,  W.  Tenn.  S.  M. 
Bain.     June-August. 

S.  lanceolatum  A.  Gray.     O.  S.     June,  July. 

S.  quadriflorum  (Sims)  Hitchc.  S.  lanceolatum  var.  angus- 
tifolium  A.  Gray.  Bradley  County.  E.  Tenn.  Cumberland 
Alts.     June,  July. 

ANAGALLIS  L. 

Anagallis  arvensis  L.  Pimpernell.  Naturalized  from  Eu- 
rope.    Scatteringly  O.  S.     May,  June.     M. 

A.  coerulea  L.  Grass  plots  in  Nashville  (Blind  School). 
May,  June. 

CENTUNCULUS  L. 

Centunculus  minimus  L.  Chaff  weed.  Hilltops  along 
Harding  Pike,  twelve  miles  west  of  Nashville.  Abundant. 
April,  May. 

DODECATHEON  L. 

Dodecatheon  Meadia  L.  Shooting  star.  The  purple  flow- 
ering variety  in  E.  Tenn.  The  white  exclusively  in  vicinity  of 
Nashville.     April,  May. 

SAPOTACE.E  Reichenb. 
BUMELIA  Sw. 
Bumelia  lycioides  (L.)   Pers.     Southern  buckthorn.     Shrub 


Tennessee  Flora. 

or  small  tree.      M.  Trim,  and  southern  par:   of   E.  Tenn.      In 
moist,  rich  soil.     June-August. 

EBENACE^E  Vent. 
DIOSPYROS   L. 

Diospyros  Virginiana   L.     Persimmon.     Sometimes   n 

ing  80  to  100  feet  in  heighl   by  3  to  4  feet  diameter.     1  1    - 

May,  June.     Fruit  in  September.  November. 

SYMPU  HACK  .!•:  Miers. 

SYMPLOCOS  L. 

Symplocos  tinctoria    (  L.)    L'Her.     Sweet-leaf   hors 
Near   Ducktown,   Polk   County,   in    \<>rth   Carolina.     M 
April. 

STYRACK.K  A.   DC. 

STYRAX  L. 

Styrax    Americana    Lam.      Smooth    storax.      Jackson,    \V. 
Tenn.     S.  M.  Bain.     March.  April. 

MOHRODENDRON   Britt.     (Halesia  Ellis.) 

Mohrodendron  Carolinum  (L.)  Britton.     Halesia  tetra] 

L.     Snowdrop   tree.     O.   S.     Along  streams.     Ocoee   Vallej 
March,  April. 

M.  dipterum    (L.)    P.ritton.     Halesia  diptera.     Grounds   "; 

St.  Cecilia  Academy,  Nashville.     Cultivated.     April. 

OLEACEJE  Lindl. 

SYRINGA  L. 

Syringa    vulgaris    L.      Lilac.      Frequently    cultivated,    and 
sometimes  remaining-  on  deserted  garden  plots.     Native  ol 
rope.     April,  May. 

FRAXINUS  L. 

Fraxinus  Americana  L.     White  ash.     O.  S.     Attaining 
100  feet  by  3  to  5  feet  diameter. 

F.  lanceolata  Borck.     F.  viridis  Michx.     Green  ash      Gi 
ing  to  65  feet  by  3  feet  diameter.      Cow.  moist  -round-.      Fre- 
quent about  Nashville.     April.  May. 

F.  Pennsylvanica  Marsh.     F.  pubescens  Law.     Swamps 
low  grounds.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

F.  quadrangulata  Michx.      Blue  ash.      Larg  lining 

sometimes  no  feet  by  3  feet  diameter.     I  >.  S.      March,  April. 

F.  Americana  var.  microcarpa   A.  Gray.     Frequent  in  the 


136  Tennessee  Flora. 

Harpeth  hills,  near  Nashville.     Is  a  hybrid  between  F.  Amer- 
icana and  viridis.     Its  copious  seeds  are  sterile.     March,  April. 

ADELIA  P.  Br.     (Forestiera  Poir.) 

Adelia  acuminata  Michx.  Forestiera  acuminata  Poir.  At 
the  water's  edge  of  Cumberland  River  and  its  tributaries. 
March,  April. 

A.  ligustrina  Michx.  Forestiera  ligustrina  Poir.  A  shrub 
characteristic  of  the  cedar  glades  of  M.  Tenn.  July.  Fruit  in 
October. 

LIGUSTRUM  L. 

Ligustrum  vulgare  L.  Privet.  Used  for  hedges.  Native 
of  Europe,  but  well  naturalized  and  producing  perfect  fruits. 
June,  July. 

LOGANIACEJE  Dumort. 

GELSEMIUM  Juss. 

Gelsemium  sempervirens  (L.)  Ait.  f.  Yellow  jessamine. 
Lookout  Mt.  Frequent  in  the  southern  part  of  M.  Tenn. 
March-October. 

SPIGELIA  L. 
Spigelia  Marylandica  L.     Pink  root.     O.  S.     May,  June. 

CYNOCTONUM  J.  G.  Gmelin.     (Mitreola  R.  Br.) 

Cynoctonum  Mitreola  (L.)  Britton.  Mitreola  petiolata  T. 
&  Gray.  Mitrewood.  Near  Kingston  Springs.  J.  M.  Bain. 
June-September. 

POLYPREMUM  L. 

Polypremum  procumbens  L.     Sandy  soil.     Scatteringly  O. 

S.     May-September. 

GENTIANACEJE  Dumort. 
SABBATIA  Adans. 

Sabbatia  lanceolata  (Walt.)  Torr.  &  Gray.  Elizabethtown, 
E.  Tenn.     May-September. 

S.  angustifolia  (Michx.)  Britton.  S.  brachiata  Ell.  Cen- 
tury.    Barrens.     O.  S.     June,  July.     M. 

S.  angularis  (L.)  Pursh.  Rose  pink.  Pastures  in  rich  soil. 
O.  S.     July,  August.     M. 

S.  campanulata  (L.)  Torr.  S.  gracilis  Pursh.  Slender 
marsh  pink.     Barrens  at  Tullahoma.     July.     11 . 


Tennessee  Flob  \. 

GENTIANA  L. 

Gentiana  quinquefolia   P.     Stiff  gentian.  [ts„   Polk 

County.     Hills  around  the  copper  mines.     August  tnber. 

G.  Saponaria  P.     Soapwort  gentian.     Moist  t! 
highlands.     September,  October.     M. 

G.  Andrewsii  Griesebach.  Closed  gentian.  Highlands. 
South  Tunnel.     August,  September. 

G.  villosa  P.     G.  ochroleuca  Frcehl.    Stringed  gentian. 
rens.     O.  S.     September,  October.      1/. 

FRASERA  Walt. 

Frasera  Carolinensis  Walt.     American  Columbo.     Barrens. 

O.  S.     June-August.     M. 

OBOLARIA  L. 

Obolaria  Virginica  L.  Pennywort.  Moist,  rich  woodlands. 
O.  S.     Paradise  Ridge.     Sequatchie  Valley. 

BARTONIA  Miihlb. 

Bartonia  Virginica  (L.)  P>.  S.  P.  B.  tenella  Willd.  Moun- 
tain bogs.     Sewanee.     July-September. 

MENYANTHACE^E  G.  Don. 
LIMNANTHEMUM  S.  G.  Gmelin. 

Limnanthemum    lacunosum    Griesb.      Floating    heart. 
press  swamps.     W.  Term.     July,  August. 

APOCYNACE.K  Lindl. 
AMSONIA  Walt. 

Amsonia    Amsonia     (P.)     Pritton.       A.    Tabenuemonl 
Walt.     Including  A.  latifolia  Michx.  and  A.  salicifolia  Pursh. 
O.  S.      Tn  moist  soil.      May.  June. 

VINCA   L. 

Vinca  minor  P.  Periwinkle.  On  all  old  graveyards.  Ma- 
tures and  propagates  from  seed.  Introduced  from  Europe. 
March-Mav. 

APOCYNUM   L. 

Apocynum  androsaerr.ifolium  P.     Spreading  dogban<        0    S 

July,  August.      .1/. 

A.  cannabinum  L.     Indian  hemp.     O.  S.     June-Augu>t.      1/ 


138  Tennessee  Flora. 

TRACHELOSPERMUM   Lemaire. 

Trachelospermum  difforme  (Walt.)  A.  Gray.  Forsteronia 
difformis  A.  DC.     Haywood  County,  W.  Tenn.     S.  M.  Bain. 

ASCLEPIADACEJE  Lindl. 
ASCLEPIAS  L. 

Asclepias  tuberosa  L.  Butterfly  weed.  Pleuresy  root. 
Fields  and  pastures.     O.  S.     June,  July.     M. 

A.  purpurascens  L.  Purple  milk  weed.  Edges  of  woods 
and  fields.     O.  S.     June,  July. 

A.  incarnata  L.  Swamp  milk  weed.  Swamps.  O.  S. 
June,  July. 

A.  incarnata  L.  Var.  longifolia  Gray.  Swamps  along  Cum- 
berland River.     M. 

A.  obtusifolia  Michx.  Ocoee  District.  Rugby.  Mrs.  Per- 
cival.     June,  July. 

A.  exaltata  (L.)  Miihl.  A.  phytolaccoidea  Pursh.  Mts.  of 
E.  Tenn.     July. 

A.  variegata  L.  White  milk  weed.  Dry  uplands,  Nash- 
ville.    E.  Tenn.     June,  July. 

A.  quadrifolia  Jacq.     Oak  barrens  of  M.  Tenn.     June,  July. 

A.  Syriaca  L.  Silk  weed.  A.  Cornuti  Decaisne.  O.  S. 
July.     M. 

A.  perennis  Walt.  Bottoms,  W.  Tenn.,  at  Henderson.  S. 
M.  Bain.     May-August. 

A.  verticillata  L.  Whorled  milk  weed.  Frequent  in  the 
cedar  glades.     July. 

ASCLEPIODORA  A.  Gray. 

Asclepiodora  viridis  (Walt.)  A.  Gray.  Cedar  glades.  In 
dry,  open  places.     May-July. 

ACERATES  Ell. 

Acerates  viridiflora  (Raf.)  Eaton.  Cedar  glades,  Lavergne. 
June,  July. 

A.  longifolia  Ell.  A.  Floridana  Hitch.  Barrens  at  Tulla- 
homa.     July,  August. 

AMPELANUS  Raf.     (Britton  Enslenia  Nutt.) 
Ampelanus   albidus  Nutt.      Britton    Enslenia   albida   Nutt. 
Sand  vine.     Thickets  and  along  river  banks.     O.  S.     July. 

VINCETOXICUM  Walter.     (Gonolobus  Michx.) 

Vincetoxicum  gonocarpon  Walt.  Gonolobus  laevis  var.  mac- 
rophyllus  A.  Gray.     G.  macrophyllus  Michx.     O.  S.     July. 


Tennessee  Flora. 

V.  hirsutum  (Michx.)  Britton.  G.  hirsutus  Michx.  Thick- 
ets along  Cumberland  River  and  Stoner's  Creek,     [une,  lulv. 

V.  obliquum  (Jacq.)  Britton.  Gonolobus  obliquus  R.  Br. 
Copses  around  Nashville. 

V.  Carolinense  (Jacq.)  Britton.  Gonolobus  Carolinensis 
R.  Br.     Vicinity  of  Nashville.     May,  June. 

V.  Shortii  (A.  Gray)  Britton.  Gonolobus  Shortii  A.  Gray 
E.  Tenn.     July. 

CONVOLVULACIJ:  Vent. 
EVOLVULUS  L. 

Evolvulvus    pilosus    Xntt.      E.    argenteus    Pursh.      Cedar 

glades,  Lavergne.     May-July. 

QUAMOCLIT  M(i*nch. 

Quamoclit  Quamoclit  (L.)  Britton.     [pomaea  Quamoclit  L. 

Cypress  vine.      Immigrant   from    S.    America.       Frequent    in 

cornfields  and  in  gardens.     July-October. 

IPOMCEA  L. 

Ipomoea  pandurata  (L.)  Meyer.  Wild  potato  vine.  Man 
of  the  earth.     Dry  soil.     Along  hedges.     May-September.      1/ 

I.  lacunosa  L.  Small-flowered  white  morning-glory.  Moisl 
soil.     O.  S.     July-September. 

I.  purpurea  (L.)  Roth.  Morning-glory.  Adventive  from 
tropical  S.  America.  Frequent  in  cultivation,  and  naturalized. 
O.  S.     July-October. 

I.  hederacea  Jacq.  Ivy-leaved  morning-glory.  Fields  and 
waste  places.     O.  S.     June-October. 

I.  Batatas  Lam.  Batatas  edulis  Chois.  Sweet  potato.  Na- 
tive of  S.  America.     In  cultivation  only. 

CONVOLVULUS  L. 

Convolvulus  sepium  L.  Great  bind  weed.  Fields  and  thick- 
ets.    O.  S.     June-August. 

C.  repens  L.  C.  sepium  var.  repens  Gray.  Old  fields. 
South  fork  of  Holston  River.     J.  K.  Small.     July,  August. 

C.  spithameus  L.  Calystegia  spithamea  Pursh.  Dry.  rocky 
woods.     Frequent  in  the  Alleghanies.     July-September, 

C.  arvensis  L.     Small  bind  weed.     Grass  plots  in  the  ci1 
Nashville.  Xormal  College  grounds.     June-August. 

CUSCl"T.UT..K  Dumort. 
CUSCUTA  L. 

Cuscuta  arvensis  Beyrich.     Field  dodder.     Near  Nashville, 

on  ambrosia.     July,  August. 


140  Tennessee  Flora. 

C.  chlorocarpa  Engelm.  A.  Gray.  On  polygonums  and 
other  herbs.     O.  S.     July-September. 

C.  indecora  Choisy.  C.  decora  Engelm.  On  solidago  and 
asters.     Nashville.     Knoxville. 

C.  tenuiflora  Engelm.     Big  Frog  Mt.     E.  Tenn.     July. 

C.  Gronovii  Willd.  On  shrubs  and  herbs.  O.  S.  August, 
September. 

C.  rostrata  Shuttle w.  Summit  of  Thunderhead,  on  solidago 
glomerata.     July. 

C.  compacta  Juss.  On  eupatorium  and  other  herbaceous 
plants.  Paradise  Ridge.  Sumner  County.  August,  Septem- 
ber. 

C.  paradoxa  Raf.  C.  glomerata  Choisy.  Low  bushes,  high- 
lands, Sumner  County.     July. 

C.  obtusiflora  H.  B.  K.  Var.  glandulosa  Eneelm.  On 
bushes  and  herbaceous  plants.  Frequent  about  Nashville. 
July,  August. 

POLEMONIACEJE  DC. 
PHLOX  L. 

Phlox  paniculata  L.  Garden  phlox.  Rich,  moist  wood- 
lands.    O.  S.     July-September. 

P.  maculata  L.  Wild  sweet  William.  With  the  former. 
Very  common  in  the  Alleghanies.     July-September. 

P.  glaberrima  L.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     Highlands  of  M.  Tenn. 

P.  glaberrima  L.  Var.  suffruticosa  Gray.  Banks  of  Cum- 
berland River  at  Rising  Sun  Bluff.     July. 

P.  pilosa  L.  Var.  detonsa  Gray.  Cliffs  on  Cumberland 
River  above  Nashville.     June. 

P.  amoena  Sims.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  and  highlands  of  M.  Tenn. 
Mitchellville,  Sumner  County.     April-June. 

P.  divaricata  L.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

P.  reptans  Michx.  Marion,  S.  W.  Va.  J.  K.  Small.  Duck- 
town,  Polk  County.     April,  May. 

P.  bifida  Beck.  Dry  ground.  Indiana-Tennessee.  Fide 
Illustrated  Flora. 

P.  Stellaria  A.  Gray.     Cedar  glades,  Lavergne.     April. 

P.  ovata  L.  P.  Carolina  L.  South  Tunnel,  Robertson 
County.     June. 

P.  subulata  L.  Moss  pink.  Kate's  Mt.,  S.  W.  Va.,  near 
Tennessee  border.     J.  K.  Small.     June. 

GILIA  R.  &  T. 

Gilia  coronopifolia  Pers.  Standing  cypress.  Red  knobs. 
McMinn  Countv,  E.  Tenn.  Perhaps  strayed  from  cultivation. 
Tuly. 


Tennessee  Floba.  in 


POLEMONIUM  L. 


Polemonium   reptans    L.      Greek    valerian.      Moist    woods. 

O.  S.     April,  May. 

HYDROPHYLLAc  I  J]  Lindl. 
HYDROPHYLLUM   L. 

Hydrophyllmm  Virginicum  L.     Virginia  water  leaf.     Duck- 
town,  Polk  County.     June. 

H.   macrophyllum    Nutt.      Damp    woods.      South    Tunnel, 

Sumner  County.     June. 

H.  appendiculatum  Michx.  Frequent  in  vicinity  of  Nash- 
ville.    June. 

H.  Canadense  L.     Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.     June.  July. 

NEMOPHILA  Nutt. 

Nemophila  microcalyx  (Nutt.)  T.  &  M.  Copses  and  ravines. 
M.  Tenn.     Frequent  around  Nashville.     Grounds  of  Vander- 

bilt  University.     March,  April. 

PHACELIA  Juss. 

Phacelia  bipinnatifida  Michx.  Moist  thickets.  O!  S.  April, 
May. 

P.  dubia  (L.)  Small.  P.  parviflora  Pursh.  Rocky  glades. 
Vicinity  of  Nashville.     April-June. 

P.  hirsuta  Nutt.  On  dry  ground.  Frequent  around  Nash- 
ville.    March,  April. 

P.  Purshii  Buckl.  Very  frequent  in  the  glades  of  M.  Tenn. 
April,  May. 

P.  fimbriata  Michx.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  White  Top  Mt..  S. 
W.  Va.     I.  K.  Small.     May,  June. 

P.  Bicknellii  J.  K.  Small.     Collected  by  Mr.   Bicknell 
city  of  Nashville,  1894.     Is  perhaps  same  as  I  have  taken  to  be 
P.  hirsuta  Nutt. 

NAMA  L.     (Hyrolea  L.) 

Nama  affinis  (A.Gray).  Kuntze.  Hollow  Rock,  W.  Tenn. 
August. 

BORAGIN  \CI-.i:  Lindl. 

HELIOTROPIUM  L. 

Heliotropium  tenelium  (Nutt.)  Torr.  Cedar  glades  of  M. 
Tenn.     Very  copious.     July. 

H.  Indicum  L.     Low,  wet  grounds.     (VS.     May-July. 

H.  anchusaefolium  Poir.  Introduced  and  spreading  in  the 
grounds  of  Dr.  Cheatham,  now  Belmont.     June. 


142  Tennessee  Flora. 

CYNOGLOSSUM  L. 

Cynoglossum  officinale     L.       Hound's     tongue.       Waste 

grounds.     O.  S.  April,  May. 

C.  Virginicum  L.  Wild  gomfrey.  Woods.  O.  S.  April, 
May. 

LAPPULA  Moench.      (Echinospermum  Sw.) 

Lappula  Lappula  (L.)  Karst.  Echinospermum  Lappula 
Lehm.  Burseed.  Naturalized  from  Europe.  Waste  places. 
Johnson  ville.     May-September. 

L.  Virginiana  (L.)  Greene.  Echinospermum  Virginianum 
Lehm.     Beggar's  ticks.     Woods.     O.  S.     Jurre,  July. 

MERTENSIA  Roth. 

Mertensia  Virginica  (L.)  DC.  Pulmonaria  Virginica  L. 
Lungwort.     Rich  woodlands.     O.  S.     March,  April. 

MYOSOTIS  L. 

Myosotis  palustris  (L.)  Lam.  Forget-me-not.  Hampton, 
E.  Tenn.     May. 

M.  laxa  Lehm.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     May,  June. 

M.  Virginica  (L.)  B.  S.  P.  M.  Verna  Nutt.  Early  scorpion 
j*rass.     Dry  hills.     O.  S.     March,  April. 

LITHOSPERMUM  L. 

Xithospermum  arvense  L.  Corn  gromwell.  Waste  places. 
'O.  S.     April. 

L.  officinale  L.     Gromwell.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     May. 

L.  latifolium  Michx.  American  gromwell.  Highlands.  In 
damp  woods.     South  Tunnel,  Sumner  County.     May,  June. 

L.  canescens  Lehm.  Hoary  raccoon.  Glades  of  M.  Tenn. 
June,  July. 

L.  angustifolium  Michx.     W.  Tenn.,  near  Hickman.     June. 

L.  tuberosum  Rugel.     Dry  ridges  near  Knoxville. 

ONOSMODIUM  Michx. 

Onosmodium  Carolinianum  DC.  False  gromwell.  Banks 
of  Holston  River,  below  the  Falls.     J.  K.  Small.     May-July. 

O.  molle  Michx.  Abundant  in  the  glades  of  M.  Tenn.  April, 
May. 

SYMPHYTUM  L. 

Symphytum  officinale  L.  Gomfrey.  Old  settlements  in  the 
mountains  of  E.  Tenn.     May,  June. 


TBNNBS8BB    FLORA.  I  i:i 

BORAGO  L. 

Borago  officinalis  L.     Borage.     Escaped  from  gardens.     E 

Term.     June. 

ECHIUM  L. 

Echium  vulgare  L.  Vipers  Bugloss.  I  rpper  E.  Tenn.  May. 
June. 

VERRFWUF.K  J.  St.  Hil. 

VERBENA  L. 

Verbena  officinalis  L.  Vervain.  Roadsides  and  old  fields. 
Naturalized  from  Europe.     E.  Tenn.     June-September. 

V.  urticaefolia  L.  Pastures  and  roadsides.  O.  S.  August, 
September. 

V.  hastata  L.     Waste  ground.     O.  S.     July-September. 

V.  angustifolia  Michx.  Dry  limestone  soils.  O.  S.  July- 
September. 

V.  stricta  Vent.     W.  Tenn.     June-September. 

V.  bracteosa  Michx.     Roadsides,  around  dwellings.     I 
June,  July. 

V.    Canadensis    (L.)    Britton.     V ' .    Aubletia    Jacq.     ( 
glades.     May-July. 

V.  riparia  Raf.  Small  &  Heller.  V.  urticaefolia  var.  riparia. 
Britton.  Banks  of  Staley  Creek,  at  Marion;  banks  of  Cedar 
Creek,  S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small. 

LIPPIA  L. 

Lippia  lanceolata  Michx.  Fog  fruit.  Moist  soil.  O.  S. 
August,  September. 

CALLICARPA  L. 

Callicarpa  Americana  L.  French  mulberry.  Limestone  re- 
gions of  M.  Tenn.     June.  July. 

LABIATE  B.  Juss. 
TEUCRIUM  L. 

Teucrium    Canadense    L.       American     Germander. 

thickets.     August.  September.     M. 

ISAMTHUS  Michx. 

Isanthus  brachiatus  (L.)  B.  S.  P.  I  cobtuIcus  Michx 
Rocky  slopes  of  limestone  regions  of  M.  Tenn.    July-Septem- 

TRICHOSTEMA  L. 
Trichostema  dichotomum  L.      Blue  curls.     Sandy  field-.     O. 
S.     July,  August. 


144  Tennessee  Flora. 

SCUTELLARIA  L. 

Scutellaria  lateriflora  L.  Mad-dog  scullcap.  Moist  wood- 
lands.    O.  S.     Jul)'-September.     M. 

S.  serrata  And.  Wood.  M.  Tenn.  Cumberland  Mts.  R. 
M.  Middleton.     May,  June. 

S.  incana  Miihl.  S.  canescens  Nutt.  Hills  near  Nashville. 
Craggy  Hope,  Nashville,  Chattanooga  and  St.  Louis  Railway. 
June-August. 

S.  cordifolia  Miihl.  S.  versicolor  Nutt.  Hills  near  Nash- 
ville.    June,  July. 

S.  cordifolia  var.  bracteata  Benth.  Bluffs  on  Mill  Creek, 
near  Nashville.     July. 

S.  pilosa  Michx.  Hills  near  Nashville.  E.  Tenn.  July, 
August. 

S.  pilosa  hirsuta  (Short)  A.  Gray.  South  Tunnel,  Sumner 
County.     July. 

S.  integrifolia  L.  Highlands.  Cumberland  Mts.  May, 
June. 

S.  integrifolia  var.  major  Chap.     Parksville,  E.  Tenn. 

S.  parvula  Michx.     Cedar  glades.     May. 

S.  campestris  Britton.  S.  parvula  var.  mollis  A.  Gray. 
Glades.     Baine. 

S.  saxatilis  Riddel.     Chilhowee  Mts.,  E.  Tenn.     May-July. 

S.  galericulata  L.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  Ducktown.  June-Sep- 
tember. 

S.  nervosa   Pursh.     Swampy  woodlands.     Sumner  County. 

J«iy- 

S.  venosa  T.  H.  Kearney.  Bull.  September,  1897.  Bluff 
Mt.,  E.  Tenn. 

MARRUBIUM  L. 

Marrubium  vulgare  L.  White  hoarhound.  Waste  places. 
Naturalized  from  Europe.     July.     M. 

AGASTACHE  Clayt.      (Lophanthus  Benth.) 

Agastache  nepetoides  (L.)  Kuntze.  Lophanthus  nepetoides 
Benth.  Catnip.  Giant  hysop.  Woods  and  thickets.  M. 
Tenn.     July-September. 

A.  scrophulariaefolia  (WTilld.)  Kuntze.  Lophanthus  scroph- 
ularisefolia  Benth.     High  mountains  of  E.  Tenn.     July. 

MEEHANIA  Britt.      (Cedronella  Benth.) 

Meehania  cordata  (Nutt.)  Britton.  Cedronella  cordata 
/enth.     Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.     May-July. 


Tennessee  Floe \.  1  i 


NEPETA 


Nepeta    Cataria    L.     Catnip.     Waste    places.     Natural 

from  Europe.     July-November.     .!/. 

GLECHOMA  L. 

Glechoma     hederacea     L.      Ground     ivy.      Shaded, 

grounds.     O.  S.  March-May.      1/. 

PRUNELLA  L. 

Prunella  vulgaris  L.     Self-heal.     Fields  and  roadsides.     I  I 

S.     July-September.     M. 

PHYSOSTEGIA  Benth. 

Physostegia  Virginiana    i  L.)    Benth.       False   dragon   head. 

Barrens.     O.  S.     July. 

SYNANDRA  Nutt. 

Synandra  hispidula  (Michx.)  Britton.     Moist  woods.     John 

Overton's  place,  near  Nashville.     March,  April. 

GALEOPSIS  L. 

Galeopsis    Tetrahit    L.     Hemp    nettle.     Lemon's    (iaj>,     E. 
Tenn.     A.  Ruth. 

LEONURUS  L. 

Leonurus  Cardiaca  L.     Motherwort.     Waste  places. 

June-September.     M. 

LAMIUM  L. 

Lamium  amplexicaule  L.     Henbit.     Weed  in  fields  and 

dens.     O.  S.     February,  March. 

L.  purpureum  L.     Red  dead  nettle.     Knoxville.     A.Ruth. 

L.  maculatum  L.     Spotted  dead  nettle.     Troutdale,  W.  Va 
J.  K.  Small. 

STACHYS  L. 

Stachys   aspera    Michx.      Hedge    nettle.      Moist    W( 
O.  S.     June,  July. 

S.  tenuifolia  Willd.     S.  aspera  xar.  glabra  Gray.     Banl 
Cumberland  River,  above  Nashville.      May.  June. 

S.  cordata  Riddel.      Rich  hillsides  in  the  Eiarpeth  hills, 
Nashville.     July. 

BETONICA  L. 

Betonica  officinalis  L.     Stachys   Betonica   Benth, 
Adventitious  in  cultivated  grounds  in   Nashville.     Jul) 
tember.     M. 


146  Tennessee  Flora. 

SALVIA  L. 

Salvia  lyrata  L.  Lyre-leaved  sage.  Copses.  O.  S.  April, 
May. 

S.  urticaefolia  L.     Woods.     O.  S.     April-June. 
S.  officinalis  L.     Sage.     Cultivated  only.     M. 

MONARDA  L. 

Monarda  didyma  L.  Oswego  tea.  Wet  places  in  the  higher 
mountains  of  E.  Tenn.     July. 

M.  Clinopodia  L.     Alts,  of  E.  Tenn.     June-August. 

M.  fistulosa  L.     Wild  bergamot.     O.  S.     June-September. 

M.  fistulosa  var.  mollis  Benth.    Nashville.    June-August.    M. 

M.  Bradburiana  Bick.     Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.     June,  July. 

M.  punctata  L.     Horse  mint.     Memphis.     Dr.  Egeling.     M. 

M.  citriodora  Cero.  Lemon  horse  mint.  Montgomery  Bell 
Academy  grounds,  Nashville.     June,  July. 

BLEPHILIA  Raf. 

Blephilia  ciliata  (L.)  Raf.     Dry  soil.     O.  S.     July. 

B.  hirsuta  (Pursh.)  Torr.  Shady  grounds  along  Cumber 
land  River,  near  Nashville.     June-September. 

HEDEOMA  Pers. 

Hedeoma  pulegioides  (L.)  Pers.  American  pennyroyal. 
O.  S.     June-September.     M. 

MELISSA  L. 

Melissa  officinalis  L.  Balm.  Cultivated,  and  escaped  from 
gardens.     June.     M. 

CLINOPODIUM  L.     (Calamintha  Mcench.) 

Clinopodium  vulgare  L.  Calamintha  Clinopodium  Benth. 
Wild  Basil.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     M. 

C.  Nepeta  ( L.)  Kuntze.  Calamintha  Nepeta  Link.  Basil 
Thyme.  Dry,  rocky  grounds.  Frequent  around  Nashville. 
E.  Tenn.     July-September. 

C.  glabrum  (Nutt.)  Kuntze.  Calamintha  glabella  var.  Nut- 
tallii  A.  Gray.     Abounds  in  the  cedar  glades.     May,  June. 

C.  glabellum  (Michx.)  Kuntze.  Calamintha  glabella  Benth. 
River  banks  of  Tennessee.     Fide  Illustrated  Flora. 


M. 


ORIGANUM  L. 
Origanum  Majorana  L.     Cultivated  majoran.     June,  July. 


Tennessee  Flora.  it: 

KCELLIA  Moench.     (Pycnanthemum  Michx.) 

Koellia  flexuosa  (Walt.)  MacM.    Pycnanth.  linifolium  Pursh. 

Mountain  mint.    Siliceous  and  argillaceous  soils.    I  >    S      func 
July.     M. 

K.  Virginica  MacM.  P.  lanceolatum  Pursh.  O.  S.  Au- 
gust, September. 

K.  pilosa  (Nutt.)  Britton.  P.  muticum  var.  pilosum  Gray. 
Dickson  County.     July. 

K.  verticillata  (Michx.)  Kuntze.  P.  Torreyi  Benth.  S.  W. 
Va.,  near  Tennessee  line.     July-September. 

K.  clinopodioides  (T.  &  G.)  Kuntze.  P.  clinopodioides  T. 
&  G.     E.  Tenn.     Fide  A.  Gray. 

K.  incana  (L.)  Kuntze.  Pycnanthemum  incanum  Michx. 
O.  S.     August-October. 

K.  pycnanthemoides  (Leavenw.)  Kuntze.  P.  Tullia  Benth. 
Hills  west  of  Nashville.     June,  July. 

K.  albescens  (T.  &  G.)  Kuntze.  P.  albescens  T.  &  G. 
Parksville,  E.  Tenn.  Also  hilltops  near  Nashville.  July-Sep- 
tember. 

K.  mutica  (Michx.)   Britton.     P.  muticum  Pers.     Oak  bar 
rens  of  Tullahoma.     Very  abundant.     July,  August. 

K.  montana  (Michx.)   Kuntze.     P.  montanum   Michx. 
Frog  Mt.     Clingman  Dome. 

THYMUS  L. 
Thymus  vulgaris  L.     Sweet  thyme.     Cultivated  only.      1/. 

SATUREIA  L. 
Satureia  hortensis  L.     Summer  savory.     Cultivated.      1/ 

LYCOPUS  L. 

Lycopus  Virginicus  L.    Bugle  weed.    Ponds  and  ditches.    I  I 

S.     August,  September. 

L.  rubellus  Moench.  Stalked  water  hoarhound.  Swamps. 
O.  S.     July-October. 

L.  Americanus  Miihl.     Cut-leaved  water  hoarhound.     Wet 

soil.     O.  S.     July-October. 

MENTHA  L. 

Mentha  spicata  L.  M.  viridis  L.  Spearmint.  Introduced. 
Wet  grounds.     O.  S.     July.     M. 

M.  Piperita  L.  Peppermint,  [ntroduced.  July-Septem- 
ber.    M. 

M.  rotundifolia  L.     Round-leaved  mint.     South  fork  o\  Ho 
ston  River.     J.  EC.  Small.     July. 


148  Tennessee  Flora. 

M.  aquatica  L.  Water  mint.  Knoxville.  A.  Ruth.  Au- 
gust-October. 

M.  arvensis  L.  Field  mint.  Waste  places.  Introduced. 
July-September. 

M.  sativa  L.  Whorled  mint.  Knoxville.  A.  Ruth.  Sep- 
tember, October. 

M.  Canadensis  L.  American  wild  mint.  Margin  of  ponds. 
O.  S.     July-October. 

COLLINSONIA  L. 

Collinsonia  Canadensis  L.  Horse  balm.  Rich  woodlands. 
Frequent  in  E.  Tenn.     July-October.     M. 

C.  punctata  Ell.  Cumberland  Mts.  Harpeth  hills,  along 
Hillsboro  Pike.     July. 

C.  verticillata  Baldw.  Lookout  Mt.  W.  M.  Canby.  Knox 
and  Loudon  Counties.     A.  Ruth.     M. 

PERILLA  Ard. 

» 

Perilla  frutescens  (L.)  Britton.  P.  ocymoides  L.  Native 
of  India.  Spreading  in  M.  Tenn.  Growing  in  old  farm  lands 
in  big  patches.     July-October. 

SOLANACEJE  Pers. 
PHYSALODES  Boehm.     (Nicandra  Adans.) 

Physalodes  Physalodes  (L.)  Britton.  Nicandra  Physa- 
lodes  Gifrtn.  Apple  of  Peru.  In  clearings,  or  a  weed  in  gar- 
dens or  fields.     O.  S.     July-September. 

PHYSALIS  L. 

Physalis  pubescens  L.  Sandy  soil.  Ground  cherry.  O.  S. 
July-September. 

P.  angulata  L.  Copses,  in  rich  soil.  O.  S.  July-Septem- 
ber. 

F.  Philadelphica  Lam.     Fields  and  gardens.     O.  S.     July. 

P.  lanceolata  Michx.  Prairie  ground  cherry.  Uplands. 
Cumberland  Mts.     July,  August. 

P.  Virginiana  Mill.  Cedar  glades  and  woods.  O.  S.  July- 
September. 

SOLANUM  L. 

Solanum  nigrum  L.  Black  nightshade.  Waste  ground. 
O.  S.     July-October.     M. 

S.  Carolinense  L.  Horse  nettle.  Fields  and  waste  grounds. 
O.  S.     May-September.     M. 

S.  rostratum  Dunal.     Sand  bur.     Adventive  from  the  West. 


Tennessee  Flob  \.  1  19 

The  original  food  of  the  potato  bug.     Nashville  and  vicinity. 
July- August. 

S.    Dulcamara    L.     Nightshade.     Bittersweet.     Rare 

spontaneous  growth.     Near  dwellings.     I  ».  S.      [une-Septem 
ber.     M. 

S.  tuberosum  L.  Potato.  In  cultivation  only.  I 
to  perfection  on  the  high  mountains  of  K.  Tenn.  (B 
Mt.),  where  it  also  matures  its  seeds. 

S.  Melongena  L.     Eggplant.     In  cultivation  only. 

LYCOPERSICON  Mill. 

Lycopersicon    Lycopersicon.      Solanum     Lycopersicon     L. 
Tomato.     Sometimes  escaped.     Largely  cultivated. 

LYCIUM  L. 

Lycium  vulgare  Dunal.     Matrimony  vine.     Roadsides  and 
wraste  grounds.     O.  S.     Introduced  from  Europe.     May.  June 

DATURA  L. 

Datura   Stramonium   L.     Thorn    apple.     Jamestown    wed 

O.  S.     June-September.     M.  » 

D.  Tatula  L.     Purple  thorn  apple.     With  the  former.     0    - 
June-September.     M. 

NICOTIANA  L. 

Nicotiana  Tabacum  L.     Tobacco.     Universally  cultivated  in 

several  varieties.     The  finest  qualities  are  grown  in  the  moun- 
tain plateaus  of  E.  Tenn.  and  North  Carolina. 

PETUNIA  Juss. 

Petunia  violacea  Lindl.     Escaped  from  gardens  into  v. 
places.     July. 

CAPSICUM   L. 

Capsicum  annuum  L.     Red  pepper.     Spanish  pepper.     I 
pepper.     .1/. 

C.  fastigiatum  L.     Bird  pepper.     Fruit  in  shape 
spur.     Used  in  pickles. 

C.  frutescens   L.     Cayenne  pepper.     Pods  shaped  like 
last,  but  larger.     Preferred  for  medicinal  purposes.      If. 

C.  grossum  W.     Bell  pepper.     Pods  large  and  less  pung 
All  these  varieties  occur  under  cultivation  only. 

SCROPHULARIACE.E  Lindl. 
VERBASCUM  L. 

Verbascum  Thapsus   L.     Great   mullen.     O.   S.     June  S 

tember.     N. 


V 

150  Tennessee  Flora. 

V.  Blattaria  L.  Moth  mullen.  Waste  places.  O.  S. 
June-November. 

LINARIA  Juss. 

Linaria  Linaria  (L.)  Karst.  Linaria  vulgaris  Mill.  But- 
ter and  eggs.     Fields  and  fence  rows.     O.  S.     June,  July.     M. 

L.  Canadensis  (L.)  Dumort.  Wild  toad  flax.  Lookout  Mt. 
On  summit.     May-September. 

SCROPHULARIA  L. 

Scrophularia  Marylandica  L.  Figwort.  WTood  and  thick- 
ets.    O.  S.     June,  July.     M. 

CHELONE  L. 

Chelone  glabra  L.  Turtle  head.  Swamps.  O.  S.  July- 
Augnst.     M. 

C.  Lyoni  Pursh.  Mountain  bogs  in  the  Alleghanies.  July- 
September. 

PENTSTEMON  Soland. 

Pentstemon  hirsutus  (L.)  WTilld.  Hairy  beard  tongue. 
Dry  woods  and  thickets.     O.  S.     May-July. 

P.  Digitalis  (Sweet)  Nutt.     Glades.     July,  August. 

P.  Pentstemon  (L.)  Britton.  P.  lsevigatus  Solander. 
Woods  and  thickets.     M.  Tenn.     June,  July. 

P.  canescens  Britton.  Slope  of  Kate's  Mt.,  S.  W.  Va.  J. 
K.  Small.     May,  June. 

P.  Smallii  Heller.  Frequent  in  the  glades  around  Nash- 
ville.    Knoxville.     F.  L.  Scribner. 

P.  calycosus  J.  K.  Small.  Bluffs.  Tennessee.  Bulletin 
Bot.  Club.     September,  i! 


PAULOWNIA  Sieb.  &  Zucc. 

Paulownia  tomentosa  (Thunb.)  Baill.  P.  imperialis  Sieb. 
&  Zucc.  Ornamental  tree  from  Japan.  Matures  its  seeds, 
and  is  sometimes  found  in  the  open  country.     May-July. 

MIMULUS  L. 

Mimulus  ringens  L.  Monkey  flower.  Wet  ground.  O.  S. 
June-September. 

M.  alatus  Soland.  Ponds  and  ditches.  O.  S.  June-Sep- 
tember. 

CONOBEA  Aubl. 

Conobea  multinda  (Michx.)  Benth.  Sandy  soil,  along 
streams.     Common  in  M.  Tenn.     June-September. 


Tennessee  Flora.  15] 

MONNIERA   P,   Br.     (Herpestis  G»rt.) 

Monniera   acuminata    (Walt.)    Kuntze.       Herpestis    n 
cens  Benth.     Moist  places  in  the  barrens  of  M.  Tenn.     |une- 
September. 

M.  rotundifolia  Michx.     Hedge  hyssop.     Ponds  urn- 

berland  River.     June-September. 

GRATIOLA.  L. 

Gratiola  Virginiana  L.  Clammy  hedge  hyssop.  Miry 
places.     O.  S.     May- August. 

G.  sphaerocarpa  Ell.  White  Cliff  Springs,  K.  Tenn.  L 
Scribner. 

G.  Floridana  Nutt.  E.  Tenn.  Nashville,  <»n  the  site  of  the 
old  waterworks.     April,  May. 

G.  ramosa  Walt.  Wet  lands  in  the  oak  barrens  at  Tulla- 
homa.     June,  July. 

ILYSANTHES  Raf. 

Ilysanthes   gratioloides    (L.)    Benth.     Wet    ground.     False 

pimpernel.     O.  S. 

I.  attenuata  Small.  Same  range  with  the  former.  April, 
May. 

I.  refracta  Benth.     Ducktown,  E.  Tenn.      May.  June. 

VERONICA  L. 

Veronica  Americana  Schwein.  American  brooklime.  Vlong 
water  courses.     O.  S.     April-September. 

V.  officinalis  L.  Common  speedwell,  [onesboro,  E.  Tenn. 
A.  Ruth.     May. 

V.    serpyllifolia    L.     Weed    in    fields    and    gardens.     < 
April,  May. 

V.  peregrina  L.  Weed  in  cultivated  ground.  I  >.  S.  April, 
May. 

V.  arvensis  L.     Weed  among  the  grass  in  pastun 
uralized  from  Europe.     March-May. 

LEPTANDRA  Xutt. 

Leptandra   Virginica    (L.)    Nutt.      Veronica    Virginica    L 

Culvers   root.      Mountains    and    highlands,      I  '.    5.      Jun< 
tember. 

BUCHNERA  L. 

Buchnera  Americana   L.      Blue  hearts.      Oak   barrens,    M. 

Tenn.     June-September. 


152  Tennessee  Flora. 

AFZELIA  J.  G.  Gmel.     (Seymeria  Pursh.) 

Afzelia  macrophylla  (Nutt.)  Kuntze.  Mullen  fox  glove. 
Rich,  alluvial  soil.     Nashville.     July. 

A.  tenuifolia  (Pursh.)  Kuntze.  Copses  near  Cleveland,  E. 
Tenn. 

DASYSTOMA  Raf.     (Gerardia  L.) 

Dasystoma  Pedicularia  (L.)  Benth.  False  fox  glove.  Sili- 
ceous soil.     O.  S. 

D.  Pedicularia  var.  pectinata  Nutt.  Harpeth  hills,  near 
Nashville.     July,  August. 

D.  flava  (L.)  Wood.  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.  and 
barrens  of  M.  Tenn.     July. 

D.  grandiflora  (Benth.)  Wood.  Dry  woods.  E.  Tenn. 
July,  August. 

D.  laevigata  Raf.     Thickets.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

D.  Virginica  (L.)  Britton.  D.  quercifolia  Benth.  Harpeth 
hills,  Davidson  County.     July,  August. 

D.  patula  Chapm.  Bluffs  of  Cumberland  River  at  Nashville. 
July,  August. 

GERARDIA  L. 

Gerardia  purpurea  L.  In  siliceous  soils.  O.  S.  July-Sep- 
tember. 

G.  tenuifolia  Vahl.     Harpeth  hills.     July-September. 

G.  tenuifolia  asperula  A.  Gray.  Greenbrier,  Robertson 
County.     July-September. 

CASTILLEJA  Mutis. 

Castilleja  coccinea  (S.)  Sprengel.  Painted  cup.  Bradley 
County,  east  of  Cleveland.     Dickson  County.     April,  May. 

SCHWALBEA  L. 
Schwalbea  Americana  L.     Chaff  seed.     Tullahoma.     June. 

PEDICULARIS  L. 

Pedicularis  Canadensis  L.  Lausewort.  Dry  woodlands. 
O.  S.     April-June. 

MELAMPYRUM  L. 

Melampyrum  lineare  Lam.     M.  Americanum  Michx.     Cow 
wheat.     Wolf  Creek,  E.  Tenn.     T.  H.  Kearney.     May-July. 
M.  latifolium  Miihl.     Thunderhead  Mt.,  n,ear  summit.     July. 


TENNE88EB    FLORA. 

LENTIBULARIACEiE  Lindl. 

UTRICULARIA  L. 

Utricularia    inflata    Walt.     Bladderwort.     Jackson.     S.    M. 
Bain. 
U.  gibba  L.     Bogs  on  summit  of  Lookout  Mt. 
U.  biflora  Lam.     Swamps  near  Hollow  Rock.     [uly. 

OROBANCHACEJE  Lindl. 
THALESIA  Raf.      (Aphyllon  A.   Cray.) 

Thalesia  uniflora  (L.)  Britton.     Aphyllon  uniflorum  T.  i 

One-flowered  broomrape.     In  leaf  mold.     Parasitic  <»n  herbs. 
April-June. 

OROBANCHE  L. 

Orobanche  Ludoviciana  Nutt.     Aphyllon  Ludovicianum  A. 

Gray.     Knoxville.     F.  L.  Scribner.     June-August. 

CONOPHOLIS  Walt. 

Conopbolis  Americana  (L.  f.)  Wallr.     Squaw  root.     Damp 

woods.     O.  S.     June. 

LEPTAMNIUM  Raf.     (Epiphegus  Karst.) 

Leptamnium  Virginicum  (L.)  Raf.  Epiphegus  Virginianus 
Bart.  Parasitic  on  the  roots  of  beech  trees.  August-i  October. 
M, 

BIGXOXTACICK  Pers. 

BIGNONIA  L. 

Bignonia  crucigera  L.  B.  capreolata  L.  Cross  vine. 
Climbing  high,  fastening  itself  on  the  hark  of  trees.  April- 
June. 

TECOMA  Juss. 

Tecoma  radicans  (L.)  DC.     Trumpet  flower.     Climbing  Of 

spreading  over  the  fields.     July-September.     M. 

CATALPA  Scop. 

Catalpa  Catalpa   (L.)    Karst.     Catalpa   bignonioides   Walt. 
Frequent  in  M.  Tenn.     June,  July.     M. 
C.  speciosa  Warmer.     Frequent  in  E.  Tenn.     June.  July. 


154  Tennessee  Flora. 

MARTYNIACE^E  Link. 

MARTYNIA  L. 

Martynia  Louisiana  Mill.  Martynia  proboscoidea  Glox. 
Waste  places.     O.  S.     July-September. 

ACANTHACEJE  J.  St.  Hil. 

RUELLIA  L. 

Ruellia  strepens  L.     Dry  soil.     O.  S.     May-July. 
R.  ciliosa  Pursh.     Barrens.     O.  S.     May-July. 

DIANTHERA  L. 

Dianthera  Americana  L.  Water  and  wet  grounds.  May- 
August. 

D.  humilis  Engelm  &  Gray.     Madison  County.     S.  M.  Bain. 

G^TESIA  Gray. 
Gaetesia  laste-virens  Gray.     Lookout  Mt.,  E.  Tenn.     July. 

DIAPEDIUM  Konig.     (Dicliptera  Juss.) 

Diapedium  brachiatum  (Pursh.)  Kuntze.  Dicliptera  brach- 
iata  Sprengel.     Damp  woodlands.     Nashville.     July-October. 

PHRYMACE^E  Schauer. 
PHRYMA  L. 

Phryma  leptosyachya   L.     Lopseed.     Woods  and  thickets. 

O.  S.     June-August. 

PLANTAGINACEiE  Lindl. 
PLANTAGO  L. 

Plantago  major  L.  Common  plantain.  Waste  grounds. 
In  cities.     Not  frequent,  like  the  next.     May-September. 

P.  Rugelii  DC.  Very  common,  and  easily  distinguished  by 
its  very  slender  spikes.     O.  S.     June-September. 

P.  lanceolata  L.  Rib  grass.  Obnoxious  intruder  into  mead- 
ows.    O.  S.     April-June. 

P.  cordata  Lam.  Water  plantain.  Swamps,  W.  Tenn. 
Falls  of  Holston  River,  S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small. 

P.  aristata  Michx.  P.  Patagonica  aristata  Gray.  Dry, 
sandy  soils.     Tullahoma.     Dickson  County.     May-October. 

P.  Virginica  L.     O.  S.     March-May. 

P.  elongata  Pursh.  P.  pusilla  Nutt.  Mitchellville.  April, 
May. 

P.  heterophylla  Nutt.     Barrens.     O.  S.    'April-July. 


Tennessee  Flora. 

RUBIA(  IAK  B.  Ju 
HOUSTONIA  I. 

Houstonia  cocerulea  L.     Bluet.     Moist,  open  ground.     I 

April-June. 

H.  serpyllifolia  Michx.     Covering  the  ground  on  the 
summits  of  the  Alleghanies.     May. 

H.  minor  (Michx.)  JVitton.     H.  patens  Ell.     Cedar  gla< 
March,  April. 

H.    minima    Beck.     I'noxville.     Fort    Saunders.     A.    Ruth. 
March,  April. 

H.  purpurea  L.     Oldenlandia  purpurea  A.  (  ira\       I  I    - 

H.  purpurea  var.  puhescens  Britton.     With  the  former 

H.  purpurea  var.  calycosa.     Similar  localities  with  the  for- 
mer.    May-September. 

H.  tenuifolia  Xutt.     Throughout  the  mountain-  of  E.  Tenn. 
Wolf  Creek.     August,  September. 

H.   angustifolia    Michx.      Copiously    in    the    cedar   gla 
Bluffs  of  Cumberland  River,  at  Nashville.     May-July. 

OLDENLANDIA  L. 

Oldenlandia  Boscii  Chapm.     Ditches  along  railroad  at  Tul- 
lahoma. 

CEPHALANTHUS  L. 

Cephalanthus  occidentalis  L.     Button   bush.     Swamps  and 
wet  ground.     O.  S.     June-September.      1/. 

MITCHELLA  L. 

Mitchella    repens    L.      Partridge    berry.      Woods.      I  I 

April-June.     M. 

SPERMACOCE   L. 

Spermacoce    glabra    L.      Smooth   button    weed.     V 
O.  S.     June-September. 

DIODIA  L. 

Diodia  teres  Walt.     Old  fields.     I  ».  S.     July-Septen 
D.   Virginiana    L.     Wet    lands,   covering    fields.     June-Au- 
gust. 

GALIUM  L. 

Galium    Aparine    L.      Cleavers.      Fence    rows    and    shady 
grounds.     O.  S.     April.  May.      M. 

G.  virgatum  Xutt.     Dry  ground  in  the  cedar  glades  at   La 
vergne.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     April-June. 

G.  Parisiense  L.     G.  anelicum  Huds.     Knoxville.     A..  Ruth. 


156  Tennessee  Flora. 

Along  north  fork  of  Holston  River,  S.  W?  Va.  J.  K.  Small. 
June- August. 

G.  pilosum  Ait.  Hairy  bedstraw.  Common.  O.  S.  June- 
August. 

G.  pilosum  puncticulosum  T.  &  G.  Near  Lynchburg,  S.  W. 
Va.     J.  K.  Small. 

G.  lanceolatum  Torr.     E.  Tenn.     S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small. 

G.  circaezans  Michx.  Wild  liquorice.  Dry  woods.  O.  S. 
May-July. 

G.  triflorum  Michx.  Fragrant  bedstraw.  Cedar  glades  and 
dry  woods.     O.  S.     June. 

G.  latifolium  Michx.  High  mountains  of  E.  Tenn.  July, 
August. 

G.  latifolium  var.  hispidulum  Small.     Spurs  of  Iron  Mt. 

G.  Arkansanum  Gray.     Johnson  ville,  W.  Tenn.     June,  Jul  v. 

G.  tinctorium  L.     Tennessee.     Fide  Illustrated  Flora. 

G.  trifidum  L.     Swampy  meadows.     O.  S.     June-August. 

CAPRIFOLIACE.F]  Vent. 

SAMBUCUS  L. 

Sambucus  Canadensis  L.  American  elder.  O.  S.  June, 
July. 

S.  pubens  L.     Mountain  elder.     Alleghanies.     April,  May. 

VIBURNUM  L. 

Viburnum  alnifolium  Marsh.  V.  lantanoides  Michx.  Hob- 
ble bush.  Mts.  of  E.  Tenn.  Summit  of  Thunderhead,  Blount 
County.     May,  June. 

V.  Opulus  L.  Cranberry  tree.  The  variety  floridum  only, 
with  all  flowers  sterile.  Frequently  planted  shrub  in  gardens. 
Sometimes  found  in  derelicted  places. 

V.  acerifolium  L.  Maple-leaved  arrow  wood.  Cumberland 
and  Alleghany  Mts.     May,  June. 

V.  dentatum  L.  Arrow  wood.  Peak  Mt.,  S.  W.  Va.  J. 
K.  Small. 

V.  cassinoides  L.  Beersheba  Springs,  Cumberland  Alts. 
M.  B.  Howell.     May,  June. 

V.  nudum  L.  White  rod.  Swampy  lands  in  the  oak  bar- 
rens, Cumberland  Plateau.     May,  June. 

V.  prunifolium  L.  Black  haw.  Cumberland  Mts.  E. 
Tenn.     April-June. 

V.  rufo-tomentosum  Small.  V.  prunifolium  var.  ferugineum 
T.  &  G.     Frequent  in  the  vicinity  of  Nashville.     April,  May. 

TRIOSTEUM  L. 
Triosteum  perfoliatum  L.     Horse  gentian.     Foot  of  Cum- 


Tennessee  Flora.  15 


berland  Mts.,  at  Cowan.     Bluffs  of  Cumberland  River      May 

July. 

f.  angustifolium  L.     Parksville,   E.  Tenn.     Knoxville       \ 

Ruth.     May-July. 

SYMPHORICARPUS  Juss. 

Symphoricarpus    racemosus     Michx.      Snowberry.      Along 

Holston  River.     J.  K.  Small.     June-September. 
S.  Symphoricarpus  (L.)  Michx.     S.  vulgaris  Michx 

berry.     Indian  currant.     Abundant  in  M.  Trim. 

LONICERA   L. 

Lonicera   dioica   L.     L.   glauca    Hill.     L.    parvi flora    Lam. 

Glaucous  honeysuckle.  Cliffs,  north  of  Bristol.  J.  I\.  Small. 
Mts.  of  E.  Tenn. 

L.  Sullivantii  Gray.     Woodlands.     (  ).  S.      May,  June. 

L.  flava  Sims.     E.  Tenn.     April,  May. 

L.  sempervirens  L.  Trumpet  honeysuckle.  Frequent  in 
the  cedar  glades  of  M.  Tenn.     June.  Jul}'. 

L.  Japonica  Thunb.  Japanese  honeysuckle  Naturalized 
from  E.  Asia.  Banks  of  Cumberland  River,  above  and  below 
Nashville.     June-August. 

DIERVILLA  Mcench. 

Diervilla  trifida  Moench.     D.  Diervilla  McM.     Cumberland 

and  Alleghany  Mts.     May,  June. 

*D.  rivularis  Gattinger.  Lula  Falls,  eight  miles  south  of 
summit  of  Lookout  Alt.     July.     Vide  Bot.  Gazette,  July,  ivXs; 

VALERIAXACK.K    Batsch. 
VALERIANA  L. 

Valeriana    pauciflora     Michx.       American     wild     valerian. 

Moist  soil.     Fide  Gray's  Synopt.  Flora.     May,  June. 

VALERIANELLA  Poll. 

Valerianella  Locusta  (L.)    Bettke.      V.  olitoria   L.      ] 
pean  corn  salad.     Cultivated  and  the  young  plant-  eaten  as 
salad  under  the  name  or"  "  fetticus."      March.  April, 


*Branchlets,  nearly  terate;  leaves,  Bubsessito,  ovate,  or  ob 
olate.  acuminate,  whitish  underneath,  all  parts  hirsutely  : 
evmes,  numerous,  3-6  flowered;  corolla,  Blightly  bilabiate,  the  upper 
three  divisions  in  close  contact,  middle  lobe  longest,  the  lo 
more  spreading;  calyx  lobes,  slend.r.  lance-subulate;  flower, 
brighter  than  in  susilifolia;  shrub  3  to  5  feet  high,  Dear  the 
stream. 


158  Tennessee  Flora. 

V.  radiata  (L.)  Dufr.  Lamb's  lettuce.  Glades  and  copses. 
M.  Tenn.     March,  April. 

V.  Woodsiana  (T.  &  G.)  Walpers.  Moist  ground.  O.  S. 
March,  April. 

V.  Woodsiana  var.  umbilicata  Gray,  and 

V.  Woodsiana  var.  patellaria  Gray.  Moist  places  in  the  bar- 
rens.    March,  April. 

DIPSACE.E  Lindl. 

DIPSACUS  L. 

Dipsacus  sylvestris  Huds.  Wild  teasel.  Waste  places. 
O.  S.     July-September. 

CUCURBITACE^E  Bernh.     Juss. 
CUCURBITA  L. 

Cucurbita  Melopepo  L.     Flat  squash.     Cult. 

C.  verrucosa  L.     Warty  squash.     Cult. 

C.  maxima  DC.     Winter  squash.     Cult. 

C.  ovifera  Gray.  Orange  gourd  squash,  including  the  Hob- 
bard  and  the  var.  medullosa  A.  Grav.  Vegetable  marrow. 
Cult. 

C.  Pepo  and  Melopepo  L.  Common  and  sugar  pumpkins. 
All  these  varieties  are  well  known  to  cultivators. 

LAGENARIA  Seringe. 

Lagenaria  vulgaris  Seringe.  Cururbita  Lagenaria  L.  Bot- 
tle gourd.     Occurs  sometimes  self-sown.     Summers. 

CITRULLUS  Schrad. 

Citrullus  vulgaris  Schrad.  Watermelon.  The  citron  is  a 
variety  with  firm  flesh,  used  for  preserving. 

CUCUMIS  L. 

Cucumis  Melo  L.  Mushmelon,  cantaloupe.  Var.  flexuosus 
is  the  serpent  melon :  var.  Dudaim,  vegetable  pomegranate, 
also  named  C.  odoratissimus,  var.  Chito,  size  of  goose  egg,  also 
called  "  vine  peach." 

C.  sativus  L.  Cucumber.  Cultivated  in  several  varieties. 
Cult. 

C.  Anguria  L.  Gherkin.  Small,  spiny,  used  for  pickling. 
Cult. 

LUFFA  Roem. 

Luffa  cylindrica  Roem.  and  L.  angularis  R.  Towel  gourds, 
dishrag.     Useful  as  a  bathing  sponge.     Cult. 


Tennessee  Flora. 

MELOTHRIA  L. 

Melothria  pendula   L.     Creeping  cucumber.     Cedar  gli 

and  hillsides.     ( ).  S.     July,  August. 

MICRAMPELIS  Raf.     (Echinocystis  T.  &  i 

Micrampelis  lobata  (Michx.)   Greene.     Echinocystis  I 

T.  &  G.      Wild  balsam  apple.     Tullahoma.     July. 

SICYOS  L. 

Sicyos  angulatus  L.     Star  cucumber.     Hedges  and  thi 
and  river  banks.     O.  S.     June-September. 

TRIANOSPERMUM  Roem. 

Trianospermum  Boykinii.  Roem.  Banks  of  Cumberland 
River  above  Nashville.    Lester  F.  Ward.    August,  September. 

CV-T.WrLACE.K  Juss. 
CAMPANULA  L. 

Campanula  aparinoides   Pursh.     Boggy   laurel   thickets,   in 

sphagnum,  Cumberland  Mts.     Sewanee.     June-August. 

C.  divaricata  Michx.  Bell  flower.  Cumberland  and  Alle- 
ghany Alts.     June-September. 

C.  Americana  L.  Tall  bellflower.  Moist  thicket-.  July- 
September. 

LEGOUZIA  Durand.     (Specularia  Heist.) 

Legouzia  biflora   (R.  &  P.)   Britton.     Specularia  biflora    V 
Gray.      Pastures    around    Nashville.     Jackson.    W.    Tenn 
M.  Bain.     April-June. 

L.  perfoliata  (L.)  Britton.  Specularia  perfoliata  \.  DC. 
Venus'  looking-glass.  Waste  grounds.  O.  S.  May  Septem- 
ber. 

LOBELIA  L. 

Lobelia  cardinalis  L.     Cardinal  flower.      Moist   soil 
July-September. 

L.  syphilitica  L.  Great  lobelia.  Moist  soil.  0.  S.  July- 
October.     M. 

L.  puberula  Michx.      Highlands.     O.  S.      AugUi  bcr. 

L.  spicata  Lam.     Cedar  glades.     E.  Tenn.     June-August 

L.  leptostachys  A.  DC.  Moist  places  in  the  barrens.  July. 
August. 

L.  inflata  L.     Indian  tobacco.     Dry.  argillaceous  soils 
S.     August,  September.      I/. 


loo  Tennessee  Flora. 

L.  Nuttallii  R.  &  P.     Mountain  bogs.     Sewanee.     July. 
*L.   Gattingeri   Gray.      Cedar   glades  of   M.  Tenn.      April, 
May. 

CICHORIACEJE  Reichenb. 

CICHORIUM  L. 

Cichorium  Intybus  L.  Chicory.  Roadsides.  Waste  ground. 
Sparingly  O.  S.  Root  substitute  of  coffee,  shoots  blanched 
for  salad.     June,  July.     M. 

C.  Endivia  L.     Endive.     Cultivated  for  salad.     Cult. 

ADOPOGON  Neck.     (Krigia  Schreb.) 

Adopogon  Virginicum  (L.)  Kuntze.  Krigia  amplexicaulis 
Nutt.     Rich  woods.     O.  S.     April,  May. 

A.  Dandelion  (L.)  Kuntze.  Krigia  Dandelion  Nutt.  Moist 
woodlands.     O.  S.     April. 

A.  Carolinianum  Walt.  Krigia  Virginica  Willd.  Cumber- 
land Mts.     Prospect  Station,  Giles  County.     June. 

A.  montanum  (Nutt.)  Krigia  montana  Nutt.  High  moun- 
tains of  E.  Tenn.     Roane  Mt.     Chickering.     July. 

TRAGOPOGON  L. 

Tragopogon  pratensis  L.  Meadow  salsify.  Introduced. 
Waste  grounds  near  Nashville.     Scarce.     May,  June. 

T.  porrifolius  L.  Salsify.  Introduced.  Cultivated  in  truck 
gardens  and  running  wild.     June.     Cult. 

TARAXACUM  Hall. 

Taraxacum  Taraxacum  (L.)  Karst.  Dandelion  .  Leonte- 
don  Taraxacon  L.  Fields  and  waste  places.  O.  S.  April- 
September.     M. 

T.  erytrospermum  Andrz.  With  the  former.  In  grass 
plots.  Plant  looks  more  delicate  than  the  former.  It  is  nearly 
as  common  as  the  former.     Nashville. 

SONCHUS  L. 

Sonchus  oleraceus  L.     Sow  thistle,  and 

S.  asper  (L.)  Allen.  Waste  grounds.  O.  S.  May-Novem- 
ber. 

LACTUCA  L. 

Lactuca  Ludoviciana   (Nutt.)   DC.     Western  lettuce.     Re- 

*N.  sp.;  flowers,  4  to  5  inches  long,  deep  blue;  lobes  of  the  calyx,  at- 
tenuate, subulate,  not  at  all  ciliate,  obscurely  appendaged  at  base  only 
by  a  minute  callus  on  each  side,  in  fruit  equaling  or  longer  than  the 
mature  capsule  (not  "shorter"),  pedicels  often  practeolate  (next  to 
Lobelia  appendicular. ). 


Tennessee  Flora.  161 

cently  introduced  in  Nashville,  and  spreading  rapidly.     June, 
July. 

L.  Scariola  L.    Prickly  lettuce.     Waste  places.     Nashville. 
Knoxville.     Naturalized  from  Europe. 

L.  sativa  L.  Garden  lettuce,  descending-  from  the  fori 
Cultivated  in  many  varieties. 

L.  Canadensis  L.     ^'ild  lettuce.     Clearings  and  w Hands 

O.  S.     June.     M. 

L.  villosa  Jacq.  L.  acuminata  Gray.  Blue  lettuce.  Tl 
ets.     O.  S.     July-September. 

L.  Floridana  (L.)  Gaertn.  Rich  woods.  O.  S.  July 
tember. 

L.  spicata  (Lam.)  Hitchc.     L.  leucophrea  A.  Gray.      River 
bottoms.     O.  S.     June-September. 

L.  spicata  integrifolia  A.  Gray.     Highlands.     June.  July. 

L.  hirsuta  Miihl.     Knoxville.     L.  T.  Scribner. 

NOTHOCALAIS  Greene.     (Troximon   Nutt.) 

Nothocalais  cuspidata  (Pursh.)  Greene.     Knoxville.     Ruth. 
Troximon  cuspidatum  Nutt. 

SITILIAS  Raf.     (Pyrrhopappus  D(  .  I 

Sitilias  Caroliniana   (Walt.)    Raf.      Pyrrhopappus   Carotin- 
ianus  DC.     East  of  Cleveland.     Ducktown  Road.     April-July. 

HIERACIUM  L. 

Hieracium    venosum    L.     Rattlesnake    weed.      Dry    woods 
O.  S.     May-October. 

H.  Marianum  Willd.  Maryland  hawk  weed.  Farmer 
S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small.     May-July. 

H.  paniculatum  L.     Dry  woodlands.     O.  S.     July-Septem- 
ber. 

H.  scabrum  Michx.     Dry  woods.     O.  S.     June-Septenr 

H.  longipilum  Torr.     W.  Tenn.     July. 

H.  Gronovii  L.     Dry  soil.     Nashville.     June.  July. 

H.  Scribneri  Small.  Lookout  Mt.  Legit  F.  L.  Scril 
Is  perhaps  H.  Greenii. 

NABALUS  Cass.      (Prenanthes   L.) 

Nabalus  altissimus  Hook.  Prenanthes  altissimus  L,  I : 
lands.     July-September. 

N.  albus  Hook.  P.  alba  L.  Rattlesnake  root.  Jacl 
W.  Tenn.     S.  M.  Bain.     July.     M. 

N.  serpentarius  (Pursh  |  Hook.  P.  serpentaria  Pi 
Lion's  foot.     Barrens  of  Dickson  County.     August.     If, 


162  Tennessee  Floea. 

N.  serpentarius  var.  barbatus  Gray.  Roane  Mt.  dicker- 
ing.    Big  Thunderhead.     July,  August. 

N.  asper  (Michx.)  T.  &  G.     Barrens.     O.  S.     July,  August. 
N.  crepidineus  (Michx.)  DC.     Bottoms.     O.  S.     August. 

AMBROSIACE.E  Reichb. 
AMBROSIA  L. 

Ambrosia  bidentata  Micx.  Waste  grounds  at  Brownsville, 
W.  Term.     August. 

A.  trifida  L.     Horse  weed.     Along  water  courses.     O.  S. 

A.  trifida  integrifolia  T.  &  G.     With  the  former. 

A.  artemisiaefolia  L.  Rag  weed.  The  most  abundant  weed 
in  the  State.     August. 

A.  psilostachya  DC.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     July-October. 

XANTHIUM  L. 

Xanthium  spinosum  L.  Burr  weed.  In  towns,  along  rail- 
road tracks.     O.  S.     September.     0. 

X.  Canadense  Mill.  American  cockleburr.  O.  S.  July- 
October. 

X.  strumaricum  L.  Waste  places.  With  the  former.  July- 
September. 

COMPOSITE  Adans. 

VERNONIA  Schreb. 

Vernonia  Noveboracensis  (L.)  Willd.ffiTron  weed.  Dry 
soil.     O.  S.     July-October. 

V.  Baldwinii  Tori*.     Wr.  ,Tenn.     August. 

V.  gigantea  (Walt.)  Britton.  V.  altissima  Nutt.  Tall  iron 
weed.     Moist  soil.     O.  S. 

V.  fasciculata  Michx.  With  the  former.  O.  S.  July-Sep- 
tember.    M. 

ELEPHANTOPUS  L. 

Elephantopus  Carolinianus  Willd.  Elephant's  foot.  Dry 
woods.     M.  Tenn.     August-September.     M. 

E.  tomentosus  L.  Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.  Au- 
gust-September.    M. 

EUPATORIUM  L. 

Eupatorium  capillifolium  (Lam.)  Smal.  E.  foeniculaceum 
Willd. .    Dog  fennel.     Lawrenceburg.     E.  Tenn. 

E.  purpureum  L.  Gravel  root.  Moist  soils.  O.  S.  Au- 
gust, September.     M. 

E.  serotinum  Michx.  Thoroughwort.  Streets  of  Nashville. 
O.  S.     September-November. 


Ten  Flora.  163 

E.  album  L.  Paradise  Ridge.  Robertson  County.  E. 
Tenn.     August,  September. 

E.  hyssopifolium  L.     Knoxville.     F.  L.  Scribner. 
September. 

E.  semiserratum  DC.  Barrens  a1  Tulahoma.  Knoxville. 
August,  September. 

E.  altissimum  L.     Dry  copses  around  Nashville.     Auj 
October. 

E.  verbenaefolium  Michx.     E.  tencrifolium  Michx.     Hamp 
ton,  E.  Tenn.     A.  Ruth. 

E.  rotundifolium  L.     Mitchellville.     Tullahoma.     July, 
gust. 

E.  pubescens    MiUil.     E.   rotundifoium    var.   ovatum   1 
Cumberland  Gap.     J.  EC.  Small.     July-September. 

E.  perfoliatum  L.  Boneset.  Low  grounds.  O.  S.  July- 
September.     .1/. 

E.  sessilifolium  L.  E.  Tenn.  \.  Ruth.  Middle  fork  of 
Holston  River.     J.  K.  Small.     July,  August. 

E.  ageratoides  L.     White  snake  root.     «  >.  S.      1/. 

E.  aromaticum  L.  Barrens  of  Tullahoma.  Knoxville.  \. 
Ruth.     August-October. 

E.  coelestinum  L.  Conoclinium  coelestinum  DC.  Mist 
flower.     Moist  soil.     Edge  of  ponds.     O.  S.      Vug  tober. 

KUHNIA  L. 

Kuhnia  eupatorioides   L.     False  boneset.     (  '.   S.     Aug 
October. 

K.  glutinosa  Ell.  K.  eupatorioides  var.  corymbulosa  T.  & 
G.     Glades  around  Nashville.     September,  (  October. 

LACINIARIA    Hill.     (Liatris   Schreb.1 

Laciniaria  squarrosa  (L.)  Hill.  Liatris  squarrosa  Willd. 
Scaly  blazing  star.  Greenbrier,  Robertson  County,  fune, 
July.     M. 

L.  scariosa  squarrulosa  Small.      Mts.  oi  I      I  enn.     July.      If. 

L.  spicata  L.  Kuntze.  Liatris  spicata  Willd.  Botton  snake 
root.     M.  and  E.  Tenn.     July.     M. 

L.  graminifolia  (Pursh.)  Barrens  of  M.  Tenn.  and  moun- 
tains of  E.  Tenn.     July,  August. 

L.  microcephala  J.   K.  Small.     Tullahoma.     With  the 
mer.     Vide  Bull.  Torr.  Bot.  Club.,  September,  [£ 

GRINDELIA  Willd. 

Grindelia    lanceolata    Nutt.     Cedar    glades    of     ! 

July-September.     M. 


164  Tennessee  Flora. 

CHRYSOPSIS  Nutt. 

Chrysopsis  graminifolia  (Michx.)  Nutt.  Golden  aster. 
Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts. 

Ch.  Mariana  (L.)  Nutt.     Sandy  soil.     O.  S.     June,  July. 
Ch.  Ruthii  Small.     Hiwassee  Valley.     A.  Ruth. 

SOLIDAGO   L. 

Solidago  caesia  L.  Blue-stemmed  golden-rod.  O.  S.  Sep- 
tember. 

S.  caesia  var.  paniculata  Gray.     With  the  former. 

S.  flexicaulis  L.  S.  latifolia  L.  Cliffs  on  Richland  Creek, 
near  Nashville.     Highlands.     August,  September. 

S.  Curtisii  T.  &  G.     Roane  Mt.     J.  W.  Chickering.     July. 

S.  bicolor  L.  White  golden-rod.  Dry  soil.  August,  Sep- 
tember. 

S.  hispida  Miihl.  S.  bicolor  var.  concolor  T.  &  G.  Siliceous 
soils.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

S.  erecta  Pursh.  S.  speciosa  var.  angustata.  Greenbrier. 
Glades  at  Lavergne.     August. 

S.  monticola  T.  &  G.  Clingman  Dome  of  the  Smokies. 
Roane  Mt.     Chickering.     July. 

S.  puberula  Nutt.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

S.  speciosa  Nutt.'  Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.  Greenbier.  Au- 
gust-October. 

S.  odora  Ait.     Barrens  and  highlands.     O.  S.     July.     M. 

S.  rugosa  Willd.  Along  Mill  Creek,  Nashville.  Highlands. 
July-October. 

S.  ulmifolia  Miihl.     With  the  former.     July. 

S.  Boottii  Hook.     Smoky  Mts.     July. 

S.  juncea  Ait.  Oak  barrens  and  woodlands.  M.  Tenn. 
July. 

S.  arguta  Ait.  Lookout  Alt.  Ocoee  region.  August,  Sep- 
tember. 

S.  rupestris  Raf.  Cliffs  along  Cumberland  River.  July, 
August. 

S.  serotina  Ait.  S.  gigantea  Willd.  Fields  and  fence  rows. 
O.  S.     September,  October. 

S.  serotina  var.  gigantea  Gray.     With  the  former. 

*S.  Gattingeri  Chapm.  Cedar  glades  at  Lavergne.  Abun- 
dant around  Tulahoma.     August,  September. 

♦Solidago  •  Gattingeri  Chapm.  Slender,  upright,  2  to  4  feet  high; 
branches  and  inflorescence,  perfectly  smooth  and  glabrous;  leaves, 
ciliolate;  lower  cauline  and  radical  lanceolate-spatulate,  appressed  ser- 
rulate, obviously  tripli-nerved ;  upper  cauline  mainly  entire  and  with- 
out lateral  ribs,  oblong  lanceolate  and  an  inch  or  so  long,  and  the  up- 
per reduced  to  half  or  quarter  inch,  but  near  the  inflorescence  very 
small   and   bractlike;    racemiform   clusters  of   small  heads  open   and 


Ten  \  1 98EE  Flora.  165 

S.  Canadensis  L.     O.  S.     Abundant.     September,  October. 

S.  Canadensis  procera  T.  &  (  ;.      With  the  form< 

S.    Canadensis    scabriuscula    T.    &    G.      Low,    wet    ground. 
Nashville.     ( October. 

S.  rigida  L.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

S.  corymbosa  Ell.    Bon  Aqua,  Dickson  County.    Tullal 
July,  August. 

S.  mollis   Bart.     S.  nemoralis   A.   Cray.     Abundant    in   all 
glades  and  barrens.     July-September. 

S.  spithamea  M.  A.  Curtis.     Roane  Mt.     J.  W.  CI 
July.     . 

S.  stricta  Ait.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

EUTHAMIA  Xutt. 

Euthamia  graminifolia   (L.)   Xutt.     Solidago  lanceolata   L. 
Fragrant    golden-rod.     Fountain    Head,    Roberts  unty. 

July. 

BRACHYCHjETA  T.  &  G. 

Brachychaeta    sphacelata    Raf.     B.    cordata    Gray.     ' 

September,  October. 

BELLIS  L. 

Bellis  integrifolia  Michx.     Western  daisy. 

April,  May. 

BOLTONIA  L'Her. 

Boltonia    diffusa     Ell.      Damp,    sandy     soil.      Tullahoma. 

Paradise  Ridse.     Ausfust-October. 


SERICOCARPUS    X 


ees. 


Sericocarpus  linifolius  (L.)  B.  S.   P.     S.  solidagineu 
Drv,  argillaceous  soils.     (  ).  S.     June-September. 

S.  asteroides  (L.)   B.  S.  1'.  S.  conyzoides  Nees.     With  the 

former.     June-September. 

ASTER  L. 

Aster  divaricatus  L.     A.  corybosus  Ait.     White-  wood  a 

Mountain  districts.     Sewanee.     July. 


spreading,    not    recurving,    disposed    to    forming    B    corymbll 

naked  panicle;  involucral  bracts,  oblong,  very  obtuse,  yellowish  in  the 

dried  plant;    flowers.   15-20  in  the  head:    rays.    1-6;    akenes.  appr. 

puberulent  or  the  lower  part  glabrous.      (S.   Missouri. inal 

Chapm.    Fl.  Suppl..  627.)     Between    MisBOurienslfi  and   Shoi 

It  occurs  in  numerous  individuals  over  a  couple  Ol 

likely  to  be  a  hybrid.    The  associated  Bpeclea  are 

abundant).  S.  speciosa.  var.  angustata,  S.  Bpeciosa,  B.  Canadensis. 

collected,  September,  1869. 


166  Tennessee  Flora. 

A.  macrophyllus  L.     Marion,  S.  W.  Va.     J.  K.  Small. 

A.  azureus  Lindl.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     August-October. 

A.  cordifolius  L.     Rocky  glens.     O.  S.     September. 

A.  sagittaefolius  Willd.  Wild  goose  pond  near  Mitchell- 
ville.     September. 

A.  undulatus  L.     O.  S.     September. 

A.  patens  Ait.     Highlands.     September. 

A.  phlogifolius  Miihl.     With  the  former.     September. 

A.  oblongifolius  Nutt.  Cliffs  on  Cumberland  River  near 
Nashville.     September. 

A.  Drummondii  Lindl.     Nashville.     September. 

A.  laevis  L.     Nashville.     September. 

A.  concolor  L.     Oak  barrens  of  M.Tenn.     July-September. 

A.  Shortii  Hook.  Rich  woodlands.  M.  Tenn.  August, 
September. 

A.  gracilis  Nutt.  Tuberous-rooted  aster.  Blount  County. 
A.  Ruth. 

A.  surculosus  Michx.  Creeping  aster.  E.  Tenn.  A.  Ruth. 
September,  October. 

A.  puniceus  L.  Vicinitv  of  Nashville.  Knoxville.  A. 
Ruth. 

A.  paludosus  Ait.  Moist  ground  in  the  barrens.  August- 
October. 

A.  Curtisii  Torr  &  Grav.  Roane  Mt.  J.  W.  Chickering. 
July. 

A.  dumosus  L.  Sandy  soil,  covering  acres  of  ground.  Au- 
gust, September. 

A.  Tradescanti  L.  Sandy  soil.  As  abundant  as  the  former. 
August,  September. 

A.  multiflorus  Ait.  Old  fields.  Siliceous  soils.  Abundant. 
August-November. 

A.  acuminatus  Michx.     Roane  Mt.     A.  Ruth. 

A.  lateriflorus  (L.)  Britton.  A.  diffusus  Ait.  A.  miser 
Nutt.  In  dry  or  damp  soil.  O.  S.  Very  variable.  August- 
October. 

A.  lateriflorus  thyrsoideus.     A.  Gray.     River  banks. 

A.  lateriflorus  grandis  Port.  A.  diffusus  var.  bifrons.  Gray. 
Moist,  shady  places. 

A.  lateriflorus  horizontalis  (Desf.)  Burgess.  Thickets 
along  Cumberland  River.     September,  October. 

A.  ericoides  L.  Frost  weed.  Covering  large  tracts  in  cal- 
careous soils.     O.  S.     September,  October. 

A.  ericoides  pilosus  (Willd.)  Porter.  A.  villosus  Michx. 
With  the  former. 

A.  ericoides  var.  Rivesii  A.  Gray.  Dry  river  banks  near 
Nashville  and  cedar  glades  in  M.  Tenn.     September,  October. 


Tennessee  Flora.  lei 

ERIGERON    L. 

Erigeron  pulchellus  Michx.     E.  bellidifolius  Miihl.     Rol 

plantain.     Siliceous  or  argillaceous  soils.     I  >.  S.     April, 

E.  Philadelphicus  L.  Philadelphia  fleabane.  Troubles 
weed  in  meadows.     April-June.     .1/. 

E.  annuus  (L.)  Pers.  Sweet  scabious.  I  >r\  glades.  I 
May,  June. 

E.  ramosus  (Walt.)  B.  S.  P.  Daisy  fleabane.  I'..  Strij 
Michl.     Fields  and  pastures.     (  ).  S. 

E.  ramosus  Beyrichii  Smith  &  Pamel.     \V.  Tenn. 

LEPTILON  Raf. 

Leptilon  Canadense  i  L. )    Britton,     Erigeron  Canadenst    I. 
Canada  fleabane.     Some  plants  reach   10  feet  high;  som 
minute,  only  i  inch  high.     (  ).  S.     June-November.     1/. 

L.  divaricatum  (Michx.)  Raf.     Erigeron  divaricatus  Michx. 
Sandy  soil.     M.  Tenn.     June-(  Ictober. 

DGELLINGERIA  Nees. 

Dcellingeria  umbellata   (Mill.)    Nees.     Diplopappus  umbel- 
latus  Hook.     O.  S.     July. 

D.  infirma  (Michx.)  Greene.  Diplopoppus  cornifolius  I 
Cumberland  and  Alleghany  Mts.  August,  September.  R 
Mt.     A.  Ruth.     July. 

IONACTIS  Orcein. 

Ionactis  linariifolius  (L.)  Greene.     Dry,  siliceous,  or 

laceons  soils.     O.  S.     July. 

PLUCHEA  Cass. 

Pluchea  foetida   L.     Marsh.     Fleabane.     Swampy    ground. 

O.  S.     July-September. 

ANTENNARIA  G»rt. 

Antennaria    plantaginifolia     L.       Richards.       Everlasl 

Dry  woods.     O.  S.     April. 

A.  monocephala  Kearney.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth. 

GNAPHALIUM  L. 

Gnaphalium    obtusifolium     L.      G.     polycephalum     Mi 

Sweet  everlasting.     Dry,  open   plac< 

tember.     M. 

G.  Helleri  Britt.     Wolf  Creek,  Cocke  Counl 

G.     decurrens      tves.      Clammy     i  ng.      Highl; 

June-August. 


168 


Tennessee  Flora. 


G.  uliginosum  L.      Bogs  on  Cumberland  Mts.      July-Sep- 
tember. 

G.  purpureum  L.     Sandy  soils.     O.  S.     May-September. 

TNULA  L. 

Inula   Heleniurri   L.     Elecampane.     Naturalized    from    Eu- 
rope.    Sweetwater,  Loudon  County,  E.  Tenn.     July.     M. 


POLYMNIA  L. 

Polymnia  Uvedalia  L.  Leaf  cup.  Yellow  bear's  foot.  O. 
S.     July,  August.     M. 

P.  Canadensis  L.  Ravines  in  the  Cumberland  and  Alle- 
ghany Mts.     June-September. 

P.  Canadensis  radiata  A.  Gray.  With  large  three-dentate, 
shining  white  ligules.  Plant  not  over  2  feet  high.  Ought  to 
rank  as  a  species.  Fosterville,  in  the  cedar  glades.  June, 
July. 

SILPHIUM  L. 

Silphium  perfoliatum  L.  Cup  plant.  Brown's  Creek,  near 
Nashville.     July-September.     M. 

S.  integrifolium  Michx.  Rosin  weed.  Charlotte  Pike,  near 
Nashville.     July. 

S.  trifoliatum  L.  Whorled  rosin  weed.  O.  S.  July,  Au- 
gust. 

S.  Asteriscus  L.  Craggie  Hope.  Cheatham  County.  Par- 
adise Ridge.     Knoxville. 

S.  Asteriscus  var.  laevicaulis  DC.     Tulahoma.     June,  July. 

S.  laciniatum  L.  Compass  plant.  E.  Tenn.  July-Septem- 
ber.    M. 

*S.  brachiatum  Gattinger.     Foot  of  mountains  at  Cowan. 

S.  scaberrimum  Ell.     Barrens  at  Tullahoma.     July. 

S.  terebinthinaceum  Jacq.  Prairie  dock.  Lavergne.  June, 
July. 

S.  terebinthinaceum  var.  pinnatifidum  Gray.     Same  range. 

S.  compositum  Michx.  Western  slopes  of  Chilhowee  Mts. 
and  in  the  hills  on  Chestua  Creek.     E.  Tenn.     July,  August. 

S.  rumicifolium  J.  K.  Small.  Knoxville.  Prof.  Ruth.  July- 
September. 

*S.  brachiatum  Gattinger.  Stem,  3  to  5  feet  high  and  very  slen- 
der; brachiate  branches,  smooth,  glabrous,  glaucous;  leaves,  somewhat 
hispidulous-scabrous,  thin;  cauline,  hastate  or  deltoid-lanceolate,  4  to  8 
lines  long,  slightly  dentate  on  rarely  long  and  barely  margined  or  naked 
petioles;  those  of  the  branches,  small  and  very  distant,  sessile,  ovate- 
lanceolate,  entire;  uppermost  reduced  to  small  bracts,  heads  small,  half 
inch  or  so  high,  on  long  and  slender  peduncles;  involucral  bracts, 
ovate;  rays,  6-8;  akenes,  ovate-orbicular,  narrowly  winged,  with  barely 
emarginate  summit.     (Bot.  Gazette,  IX.,  192;  coll.,  1867.) 


TBNNE8SBB    FLORA. 

CHRYSOGONUM  L. 

Chrysogonum   Virginianum    L.      Ducktown,    Polk    County. 

April -July. 

PARTHENIUM  L. 

Parthenium   integrifolium    L.     American    fever    few. 

grounds.     O.  S.     July. 

HELIOPSIS   L. 

Heliopsis  helianthoides  (L.)    B.  S.    P.      If.  lflBvis    Pel 
eye.     Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.  and  mountains  of  E.  Tenn.     Au- 
gust, September. 

H.  scabra  Dunal.     Paradise  Ridge.     Knoxville.     July. 

ZINNIA  L. 
Zinnia  pauciflora  L.     Escaped.     Nashville. 

ECLIPTA  L. 

Eclipta  alba    (L.)    Hassk.     E.   procumbens    Michx.     M 
ground  .along  streams,  and  a  weed  in  fields  and  gardens. 
uralized  from  tropical  America.     July-October. 

TETRAGONOTHECA  L. 

Tetragonotheca    helianthoides     L.      Cave     Spring,     Roane 

County. 

RUDBECKIA  L. 

Rudbeckia  triloba   L.     Cone   dower.     O.   S.     July-Septem- 
ber. 

R.    subtomentosa    Pursh.     Henderson,    \\  .    Tenn.     S. 
Bain. 

R.  hirta  L.     Black-eyed  Susan.      Barrens.     O.  S.     Ai:. 
September. 

R.  Brittoni  Small.    Alts,  of  E.  Tenn.    Fide  Illustrated  Flora. 
May- July. 

R.  fulgida  Ait.      Dry   wood-  and   barren-.      I  >.   S.       V.:. 
October. 

R.    spathulata    Michx.     Chilhowee    Mts.,    E.   Tenn.      \.    II. 
Curtiss.     September. 

R.   speciosa    Wenderoth.     Lavergne.     Holloa    Rock. 
gust-October. 

R.  laciniata  L.     Paradise   Ridge.     Mts.  of  E.    1  enn.     W< 
Creek.     Var.  humilis  Gray.     Is  a  mountain  form.     Julj 
tember.     .1/. 

R.  bicolor  Nutt.     Open,  dry  barrens.     Nashville. 
September. 


170  Tennessee  Floea. 

*R.    umbrosa   n.    sp.     C.    L.    Boynton   and   C.    D.    Beadle. 
Sparta,  White  County.     August. 

•     RATIBIDA  Raf.     (Lepachys  Raf.) 

Ratibida  pinnata  (Vent.)  Bernhart.  Lapachys  pinnata 
Torr  &  Gray.     Dry  copses.     O.  S.     June-September. 

R.  columnaris  (Sims)  D.  Don.  Prairie  cone  flower,  var  pul- 
cherrima.  Found  near  cotton  compress,  S.  Nashville.  A 
waif. 

BRAUNERIA   Neck.     (Echinacea  Moench.) 

Braunneria  purpurea  L.  Britton.  Echinacea  Moench. 
Black  Sampson.     M.  and  E.  Tenn.     In  moist,  rich  soil. 

B.  pallida  (Nutt.)  Britton.  Echinacea  angustifolia  Nutt. 
Hills  near  Nashville.  Flowers  differ  from  deep  purple  to  pure 
white.     July-October. 

HELIANTHUS  L. 

Helianthus  angustifolius  L.  Swamp  sunflower.  Craggy 
Hope,  Cheatham  County,  and  in  W.  Tenn.     S.  M.  Bain. 

H.  annuus  L.  Common  sunflower.  Frequently  escaping 
cultivation.     July-September. 

H.  verticillatus  Small.     Henderson,  W.  Tenn.     S.  M.  Bain. 

H.  atrorubens  Nutt.     Dry  woods.     O.  S.     August-October. 

H.  laevigatus  Torr  &  Gray.  Alts,  of  E.  Tenn.  August-Oc- 
tober. 

H.  microcephalus  T.  &  G.  H.  parviflorus  Bernh.  O.  S. 
July-August. 

H.  giganteus  L.     Knoxville.     A.  Ruth.     August-October. 

H.  divaricatus  L.  Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.  E.  Tenn.  July, 
August. 

H.  mollis  Lam.  Barrens  of  AT.  Tenn.  Abundant.  Au- 
gust, September. 

H.  decapetalus  L.  Highlands  of  M.  Tenn.  Alts,  of  E. 
Tenn.     August,  September. 

H.  tracheliifolius  Alichx.  Big  Frog  Alts.,  .Polk  County. 
July,  August. 

H.  hirsutus  Raf.  Barrens  of  M.  Tenn.  Abundant.  July, 
August. 

H.  lastiflorus  Pers.  Brownsville,  W.  Tenn.  August,  Sep- 
tember. 

H.  tomentosus  Michx.  Lake  Otase,  near  Knoxville.  A. 
Ruth. 

*R.  umbrosa  C.  L.  Boynton.  Related  to  R.  speciosa  Wender.,  dif- 
fering from  the  latter  species  in  the  broad  and  hairy-lipped  chaff,  size 
of  flower  heads,  shorter  and  fewer  rays,  and  in  the  outline  of  the  leaves. 
(Biltmore  Botanical  Studies,  Vol.  I.,  No.  1.) 


T]  \  \i.-i.i:  Flora.  1:1 

H.  tuberosus   L.     Jerusalem   artichoke.     Rich   soil.     R 
banks.     Also   sometimes   in    cultivation.     1  »• 
tention  as  a  foodstuff  for  hogs.     Hard  to  eradicate  from  fields 
where  it  onc^  has  been  planted.     September,  I  »•  I  >ber. 

VERBESINA    L.     (Actinomeris    Nutt.) 

Verbesina  Virginica  L,     Virginia  crownbeard.     Limest 
soils.     M.  Tenn.     August,  September. 

V.  occidentalis  ( L. )   Walt.     Western  declivities  of  Smoky 
Mts.     In  abundance.     September. 

V.  helianthoides   Michx.     Actinomeris   helianthoides   Nutt. 
Moist  woods.     ( ).  S.     June,  July. 

V.  alternifolia  (L.)    Britton.     Actinomeris  squarrosa   Nutt. 
Moist  woods.     O.  S.     August,  September. 

HELIANTHELLA  T.  &   G. 

Helianthella  tenuifolia  T.  &  <  i.     In  big  patches,  two  miles 

east  of  Tnlahoma.     July. 

COREOPSIS  L. 

Coreopsis   rosea    Nutt.     In    a    swamp    in    Ducktown,    Polk 
County.     July. 

C.  tinctoria  Nutt.     Garden  tick  seed.     Frequently  escaping 
cultivation.     July,  September. 

C.  major  Walt.     C.  senifolia  Michx.     Siliceous  soils.     (l    S 
July,  August. 

C.  major  Oemleri  (Ell.)    Britton.     C.  senifolia  var.  stellata 
T.  &  G.     With  the  former.     July,  August. 

C.  delphinifolia  Lam.     E.  Tenn.     June-Septeml 

C.  verticillata  L.     Upper  E.  Tenn.     June-September. 

C.  pubescens  Ell.     Cumberland  Mts.     June-August. 

C.  crassifolia  Ait.     C.  lanceolata  var.  villosa  Michx.     B 
of  Cumberland  River  at  Nashville.     May  September. 

C.  auriculata  L.     Greenbrier,  Robertson  County,     June. 

C.    grandiflora    Nutt.     Harpeth    hills,    south    of    Nashville, 
July-September. 

C.  tripteris  L.     Common  tick  seed.     Low  lands  and  thick- 
ets.    O.  S.     August,  September. 

BIDENS  L. 

Bidens  lasvis   (L.)    B.  S.    P.     B.  chrysanth 
Smooth  marigold.     Wet   land-  and  ditches.     I  v   S 
November. 

B.  cernua  L.     Nodding  burr  marigold.     In  water  and 
lands.     O.  S.     July-October. 


172  Tennessee  Flora. 

B.  connata  Miihl.  Swamp  beggar  ticks.  Swamps  and 
ditches.     O.  S.     August-October. 

B.  discoidea  (T.  &  G.)  Britton.  River  swamps.  O.  S.  Au- 
gust, September. 

B.  frondosa  L.  Beggar  ticks.  Moist  soil.  O.  S.  July- 
October. 

B.  bipinnata  L.  Spanish  needles.  Bad  weed.  O.  S.  July- 
October. 

B.  trichosperma  (Michx.)  Britton.  Coreopsis  trichosperma 
Michx.  Tick-seed  sunflower.  River  swamps.  Nashville. 
August,  September. 

B.  aristosa  (Michx.)  Britton.  Var.  mutica  A.  Gray.  Jack- 
son, W.  Tenn.     S.  M.  Bain. 

GALINSOGA  R.  &  P. 

Galinsoga  parviflora  Cav.  Introduced  from  S.  America. 
Gardens  near  Nashville.     September. 

MARSHALLIA  Schreb. 

Marshallia  trinervia  (Walt.)  Porter.  M.  latifolia  Pursh. 
Fountain  Head.     Eggert.     Tullahoma.     May,  June. 

M.  lanceolata  Pursh.  Vicinity  of  Memphis.  Dr.  G.  Ege- 
ling.     May,  June. 

HELIENIUM  L. 

Helenium  autumnale  L.  Sneeze  weed.  River  banks  and 
low  grounds.     O.  S.     August-October. 

H.  nudiflorum  Nutt.  Leptopoda  brachypoda  T.  &  G. 
Sandy,  damp  soils.     O.  S.     Tullahoma.     July,  August. 

H.  tenuifolium  Nutt.     Scatteringly  O.  S.     August-October. 

H.  parviflorum  Nutt.  Cedar  glades  at  Lavergne.  July- 
September. 

DYSODIA  Cav. 

Dysodia  papposa  (Vent.)  A.  S.  Hitchcock.  Fetid  marigold. 
D.  chrysanthemoides  Lag.  Mitchellville.  Abundant  across 
State  line  in  Kentucky.     July-October. 

ACHILLEA  L. 

Achillea  Millefolium  L.  Millfoil.  Yarrowr.  Roadsides 
and  pastures.     O.  S.     June-November. 

ANTHEMIS  L. 

Anthemis  Cotula  L.  May  weed.  Fetid  chamomile.  Waste 
ground.'     O.  S.     May,  June. 


Tennessee  Flora. 

CHRYSANTHEMUM    L. 

Chrysanthemum  Leucanthemum    L.     0 
May-July. 

MATRICARIA  L. 

Matricaria  Chamomilla  L.     German  chamomile.     Formerly 
cultivated  by  early  settlers  as  a  medicinal  herb,  and  i 
sionally  in  fields.     June,  July. 

TANACETUM  L. 

Tanacetum  vulgare    L.     Tansy.     Cultivated   and    in    . 

grounds.     July,  August. 

ARTEMISIA  L. 

Artemisia  Absinthium  L.     Common  wormwood.     R 
waste  grounds  near  gardens.     Adventive   from    Europe,  and 
frequently  in  gardens.     July,  September. 

A.  annua  L.     Adventive  from  Asia,  but  widely  dissemin 
and  abundant  near  Nashville.     September.  <  October. 

A.  biennis  Willd.     W.  Tenn.     Copiously  on  the  banks 
the  Ohio  River  at  Louisville.     Septemb-  ber. 

A.  Mexicana  Willd.     W.  Nashville,  on  open  grounds. 
tember,  October. 

ERECHTITES  Raf. 

Erechtites  hieracifolia  R.     In  clearings.     O.  S.     June,  July. 

MESADENIA  Raf.     (Cacalia   Nutt.) 

Mesadenia  reniformis  (Miihl.)  Raf.  Cacalia  reniformis 
Miihl.  Great  Indian  plantain.  Cumberland  and  Alleghany 
Mts.     July,  August. 

M.  atriplicifolia  (L.)  Raf.     Rich  woodlands.     <  ).  S.     July. 

M.  tuberosa  (Nutt.)  Britton.  Wet  places  in  the  cedar 
glades.     July,  August. 

SYNOSMA  Raf. 

Synosma    suaveolens     (L.)     Raf.      Cacalia    suaveolens     L 

Banks  of  Turnbull  Creek,  near  Kingston  Springs.     July.  An 
gust. 

SENECIO  L. 

Senecio  obovatus  Miihl.     Squaw  weed.     S.  Aurens  vai 
ovatus  T.  &  G.     Moist  soil.     M.  Tenn.     April  June. 

S.   Balsamitae    Miihl.      S.   aurens   var.    BalsamitflB   T.    8 
Ducktown.     E.  Tenn.     May-July. 

S.  Smallii  Britt.     Banks  of  Wolf  Creek.     E.  'Tenn. 

S.  aureus  L.     Golden  ragwort.    Swamps  and  wet  mead 
O.  S.     Mav-July. 


174  Tennessee  Flora. 

S.  lobatus  Pers.  Butter  weed.  Wet  places.  Brownsville. 
Lavergne.     April,  May. 

S.  vulgaris  L.     Knoxville.     Erratic. 

S.  Rugelia  Gray.     Smoky  Mts.     Legit  Dr.  Rugel. 

S.  Earlei  J.  K.  Small.  Knoxville.  Professor  Ruth.  May- 
July. 

ARCTIUM  L. 

Arctium  Lappa  L.  Burdock.  Waste  grounds.  O.  S. 
July,  August. 

A.  minus  Selik.     Cumberland  Gap.     J.  K.  Small. 

CARDUUS  L. 

Carduus  lanceolatus  L.  Crisium  lanceolatum  Scop.  Com- 
mon thistle.     O.  S.     July,  August. 

C.  altissimus  L.  Cnicus  altissimus  Willd.  Fence  rows. 
O.  S.     Not  as  frequent  as  the  former.     July-November. 

C.  discolor  (Miihl.)  Nutt.  Cnicus  altissimus  var.  discolor. 
A.  Gray.  Banks  of  Cumberland  River  below  Nashville. 
July-November. 

C.  muticus  (Michx.)  Pers.  Lookout  Mt.  Roane  Mt. 
Chickering.     July. 

MARIANA  Hill.     (Silybum  Gsert.) 

Mariana  Mariana  (L.)  Hill.  Silybum  Marianum  Grert. 
IMilk  thistle.  Near  Tracy  City.  Mrs.  Turner.  Nashville, 
near  Chattanooga  shops.     June-August. 

ONOPORDON  L. 

Onopordon  Acanthium  L.  Cotton  thistle.  Dry  pastures 
and  roadsides  around  Nashville.     July-September. 

CENTAUREA  L. 

Centaurea  Cyanus  L.  Blue  bottle.  Corn  flower.  Waste 
places.     Escaped  from  cultivation. 

CNICUS  L. 

Cnicus  benedictus  L.  Blessed  thistle.  Centaurea  benedicta 
L.  Waste  ground  around  Livingston  Hall,  Nashville.  Mrs. 
Lydia  Bennett.     May-August. 


Tennessee  Flora.  i:-. 


ADDENDA  TO  SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  FLORA  OF 
TENNESSEE. 

Crataegus  apiifolia  Michx.     Collected  1>\  T.  G.  Hai 

Memphis. 

*Juncoides  bulbosum  Wood.     Lookout  Mt.     S.  M.   Bain. 

Rudbeckia  monticola  J.  K.  Small.     White  Cliff  Springs.     T. 

H.  Kearney.     Lookout  Mt.     H.  Eggert. 

fCornus  Priceae  J.  K.  Small.     Bluffs  on  Cumberland  River 

at  Nashville. 


*Juncoides  bulbosum  Wood.     Base  of   plant  accompanied    by    bulb- 
lets;  foliage,  almost  glabrous,  or  somewhat  webby  on  the  leaf  margin! 
and  at  the  top  of  the  sheaths;  stems.  1-4  dm.  tall;  spik.s.  Bh< 
those  of  J.  echinatum;  sepals  and  petals,  ovate-lanceolate  or  Ian.  • 
2-2.5  mm.  long,  brownish,  acuminate,  neither  manifestly  soft  nor  hya- 
line at  the  apex;  capsule,  broadly  obovoid  or  globose-obovoid.  mil 
ing  the  sepals  or  sometimes  about  equaling  them. 

fCornus   Priceae.     A    branching    shrub    1-2.5    m.    tall,    with    rod    and 
finely-pubescent  twigs;  leaves,  numerous;  blades,  elliptic  to  ovate-Hlip- 
tic  or  ovate,   5-12   cm.   long,   rather   leathery,   usually   acuminate 
green  and  roughly  pubescent  above,  pale  and  more  copiously,  but  rather 
softly   pubescent   and    prominently   veined    beneath;    petioles,    I  I 
long,  pubescent  like  the  twigs;  corymbs.  2-3  cm.  broad  during  an* 
4-6  cm.  broad  at  maturity;  peduncles  and  pedicels,  closely  and  harshly 
pubescent;  sepals,  triangular;  corolla,  white,  about  7  mm.  broad;  p 
4,  oblong-lanceolate  to  linear-lanceolate;  filaments,  slightly  shorter  than 
the  petals;  drupes,  about  3  mm.  in  diameter,  subglohose.  wh 
about  2  mm.  in  diameter,  scarcely  longer  than  broad,  faintly  pit- 


176 


Tennessee  Flora. 


LIST  OF  ORDERS— With  the  Number  of  Genera  and 
Species,  the  Cultivated  and  Officinal. 


Pteridophyta 

Ophioglossaceae 

Osmundaceae 

Hymenophyllaceae 

Schizaeaceae 

Polypodiaceae 

Salviniacese 

Equisetaceae 

Ivvcopodiaceas 

lsoetaceae  

Spermatophyta. 

Gymnospermae. 

Pinaceae 

Taxaceae 

Angiospermae. 

Monocotyledones. 

Typhaceae 

Sparganiaceae 

Naiadeae 

Alismaceae 

Valisneriaceae 

Gramineae. 

Mayideae 

Andropogonaeeae 

Paniceae  

Oryceae 

Phalarideae 

Agrostideae 

Avenaceae 

Chlorideae 

Festuceae  

Hordeaceae 

Bambuseae    

Cyperaceae 

Araceae 

Leninaceae   

Xridaceae 

Eriocaulonaceae 

Pontederiaceae 

Juncaceae 

Melanthaceae 

L,iliaceae 

Convallariaceae 

Smilaceae 

Amaryllidaceae 

Dioscoreaceae 

Iridacea> 

Orchidaceae 

Dicotyledones. 

Saururacea> 

Juglandaee.i} 

Salicineae 

Betulace* 

Fagacea: 

Ulmacea? 

Moraceae 

Urticacea> 


T3 

V 

V 

c6 

B) 

s 

o 
u 
ft 

3 

O 

O 

•x 

u 

o 

2 

4 

l 

1 
1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

15 

41 

5 

1 

1 

1 

3 

2 

6 

1 

1 

1 

7 

14 

3 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 

2 

8 

3 
1 

6 
1 

1 

?, 

9 

1 

16 

3 

9 

59 

3 

5 

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4 

li) 

85 

(5 

9 

7 

7 

14 

54 

7 

31 

1 

2 

18 

124 

5 

6 

4 

3 

7 

1 

2 

?, 

7 

2 

4 

1 

2 

17 

1 

8 

14 

1 

11 

13 

6 

4 

Ki 

22 

1 

3 

1 

11 

8 

3 

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40 

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10 

1 

:i 

21 

7 

3 

8 

1 

5 

61 

4 

5 

9 

1 

Dicotyledones—  Contin'd 


L,oranthacea3 

vSantalacea' 

Aristoloehiaeea' . . 

Polygonacea1 

Chenopodiacea? . . 
Amaranthacea1  . . 
Phytolaccacea1 . . . 
Nyctaginacere  . . . 

Aizoacea1  

Portulacacea1 

Caryophyllacea?  . 
Nymphaeacea1 . . . 

Magnoliacea» 

Anonacea1 

Ranunculacea? . . . 

Berberidacea? 

Menispermacea1  , 

Calicanthacea- 

L,auracea^  

Papaveracea1   

Crucifera> , 

Capparidacea1 

Saraceuiacea?  .... 
Podostemacea'  . . . 

Crassulacea1 

Saxif  ragaceae 

Grosulariacea1  . . . 
Hamamelidacea1 . 

Platanacea' 

Rosacea1 

Drupacea1 

Mimosacea^ 

Caesalpinacea^  . . . 

Papilionacea' 

Geraniacea1 

Oxalidacea* 

Linaceae 

Rutacea> 

Simarabaca' 

Meliacea'  

Polygalacea1 

Euphorbiacea' 

Callitrichacea?  . . . 

Buxacea- 

Anacardiacea> 

Ilicineae   

Celastracea> 

Staphyleacea? 

Aceracea' 

Hippocastanacea> 

Sapindacea^ 

Balsaminaceae 

Rhamnacea; 

Vitaceae , 

Tiliacere 

Malvaceae 

Theacea> 

Hypericacea1 

Cistacea' 

Violaceae 

Passifloraceae  — 

Cactacea? 

Thymeleacea1 

Lythraceae  


172 


Tennessee  Flora. 
LIST  OF  ORDERS  —  Continued. 


Dicotyledones—  Contin'd 

Melastomacea- 

Ouagracea1  

Halloragidaceii' 

Araliacea- 

Umbellifera"    

Cornacea? 

Clethracea- 

Pyrolacea1 

Monotropacea' 

Ericaceae 

Vacciniacea> 

Diapensiacea^ 

Primulacea1 

Sapotacea? 

Ebenacea? 

Symplocacea> 

Styracea? 

Oleacea' 

IvOganiacea' 

Gentianacea>   

Menyanthacea? 

Apocynacea1 

Asclepiadacea? 

Convolvulacea?   


3 

4 

11 

25 

1 

9 

4 

2 

5 

5 

30 

52 

12 

H 

•> 

s 

>> 

1 

1 

>> 

4 

2 

:\ 

3 

11 

19 

2 

3 

14 

5 

1 

I 

»i 

14 

1 

1 

1 

.... 

1 

1 

-) 

3 

1 

5 

10 

3 

4 

4 

2 

0 

11 

7 

1 

1 

1 

3 

5 

2 

5 

20 

3 

4 

12 

i 

1 

Dicotyledones 


Cuscuta<  i 
Polemonia<  •  ■  <■  . 
Boragin 
Vei  ben  • 

I.al>i.tt:r 

Solanaceaa    . . . . 
Scrophulariacei 
Lentibulariacea 
( trobanchacece . 
Bignoni 
Martyni 
Acanthai 
Phrymacese . ... 
Plantaginai  eae 

Rubiaceas 

Caprifoliaceffi . . 
Valeriana*  eae  . , 

Dipaacec  

Cucurbitace  e  , 
Campanulacese 
Cichoriaceje 
Ambrosi 
Composite 


10 

81 

I 
l 
1 

I 
- 

•J! 

1 
It 
18 

- 


Total : 
Families. 
Genera  . . 


16] 


Species 

Cultivated 

Officinal 


178 


Tennessee  Flora. 


Index  of  the  Genera* 


PAGE. 

Abies 32 

Abutilon    119 

Acacia    101 

Acalypha  113 

Acer   115 

Acerates    138 

Achillea 172 

Achroanthes 163 

Acnida  75 

Aconitum 80 

Acorus  54 

Actaea    80 

Acuan 101 

Adelia 136 

Adiantum   29 

Adicea    71 

Adlumia 85 

^sculus 116 

Afzelia 152 

Agave 61 

Agrimonia 95 

Agropyrum  46 

Agrostema 76 

Agrostis 40 

Ailanthus    Ill 

Alchemilla 95 

Aletris    58 

Alisma  34 

Allionia  75 

Allium   57 

Alnus   67 

Alopecurus  40 

Alsine 77 

Amaranthus  74 

Ambrosia 162 

Amelanchier 97 

Ammania 123 

Amorpha  104 

Ampelanus   138 

Ampelopsis 118 

Amsonia 137 

Amygdalus   101 

Anagallis 134 

Andropogon 35 

Anemone  81 

Angelica 126 

Antennaria 167 


PAGE. 

Anthemis 172 

Anthoxanthum 39' 

Anthriscus 128 

Anychia    78 

Apiastrum 128 

Apios    108 

Apium 129 

Aplectrum  64 

Apocynum 137 

Apogon 160 

Aquilegia 80 

Arabis 88 

Arachis 110 

Aralia 126 

Arctium  174 

Arenaria 77 

Argemone   87 

Arisaema 53 

Aristida 39 

Aristolochia 72 

Aronia   96 

Arrhenaterum   42 

Artemisia 173 

Arum    53 

Aruncus 93 

Arundinaria 48 

Arundo 43 

Asarum    72 

Aselepias 138 

Ascyrum 119 

Asimina  79 

Asparagus 59 

Asplenium 29 

Aster 165 

Astilbe  90 

Astragalus 106 

Athyrium 29 

Atragene  81 

Avena 42 

Azalea 131 

Azolla 30 

Baptisia  102 

Bartonia 137 

Batrachium 82 

Bellis   165 

Benzoin  84 


Tennessee  Flora, 


L7fl 


Berberis 83 

Berchemia 117 

Beta 7  1 

Betula 67 

Bicuculla 85 

Bidens    171 

Bignonia   153 

Blephilia  140 

Boehmeria 71 

Boltonia 165 

Borago    143 

Boutelloua 43 

Brachychaeta  165 

Brachyelytrum 40 

Bradburia  108 

Brasenia 78 

Brassica 86 

Brauneria  170 

Bromus    46 

Broussonettia  70 

Brunnichia   73 

Buchnera 151 

Buckleya  71 

Bumelia  134 

Bupleurum    128 

Bursa   188 

Buttnera 83 

Cabomba   78 

Calamagrostis 40 

Callicarpa   143 

Callirophoe   118 

Callitriche 114 

Caltha 79 

Calycocarpum 83 

Camelina 88 

Campanula   159 

Camptosorus 29 

Cannabis 70 

Capnoides   85 

Capparis 89 

Capriola 42 

Capsicum 149 

Cardamine 87 

Cardiospermum 116 

Carduus 179 

Carex 51 

Carpinus   66 

Carum 129 

Cassia  102 

Castalia  78 

Castanea   67 

Castilleja 152 

Catalpa 153 

Caulophyllum 83 

Ceanothus 117 

Cebatha  83 


Celastrus 

Celtia   

Cenchrua  

Centauroa    

CentunculuB  

Cephalanthui  

Cerastium  

Ceratophyllum  

Cercia 102 

Chaerophyllum  128 

Chamadirion  

Cheilanthos 

Cbelidoniuni 

Chelone   i  .-,-> 

Chenopodium    

Cbimaphila   131 

Chloris   

Chrosperma    

Chrysanthemum 171 

Chrysogonum   1  S:< 

Chrysopogon  16 

Chrysopsis    l  S 1 

Chrysosplenium   

Cicer  L09 

Cichorium L60 

Cicuta  

Cimicifuga    

Cinna   

Circaea L26 

Citrullus    

Cladrastis  19% 

Claytonia 16 

Clematis 

Cleome 

Clethra 

Clinopodium   14* 

Clintonia   

Clitoria IW 

Cnious 1  T  4 

Collinsonia   148 

Commandra    

Commelina    

Conobea    

Conopholis 

Convallaria    

Convolvulus 

Coptis  

Corallorhiza  

Coreopsis   1 

Coriandrum 

Cornus   

Coronopus   

Corylua 

Cotlnua 

Cotoneaster 

Cracca    

Crategua  


180 


Tennessee  Flora.  ' 


PAGE. 

Crotalaria  103 

Croton    112 

Crotonopsis 113 

Cubelium  122 

Cucumis 158 

Cucurbita 158 

Cumminum   130 

Cuscuta   139 

Cydonia   97 

Cynoglossum    142 

Cynosurus 45 

Cyperus   48 

Cypripedium 62 

Daetylis  44 

Danthonia 42 

Dasystoma 152 

Datura  149 

Daucus 126 

Decodon  123 

Decumaria 92 

Delphinium 80 

Dendrium    132 

Dennstaedtia 28 

Deschampsia 42 

Diamorpha  90 

Dianthera   154 

Danthus 77 

Diapedium 154 

Dicnromena    50 

Didiplis   123 

Diervilla    157 

Diodia 155 

Dioscorea 61 

Diospyros    135 

Diphylleia  ■ 83 

Dipsacus    158 

Dirca 123 

Disporum 59 

Dodecatheon  134 

Doelingeria 167 

Draba  88 

Duchesnia 94 

Dulichium 49 

Dysodia   172 

Eatonia    44 

Echinodorus 34 

Echium    143 

Eclipta 169 

Eleocharis 49 

Elephantopus  162 

Eleusine 43 

Elymus 48 

Epigaea 132 

Epilobium 124 

Equisetum 30 


PAGE. 

Eragrostis 43 

Erechtites 173 

Erianthus   34 

Erigenia    130 

Erigeron    167 

Eriocaulon 54 

Eriophorum    50 

Ervum    108 

Eryngium   127 

Erysimum  89 

Erythronium    58 

Eulophus  128 

Eupatorium    162 

Euphorbia   113 

Euthamia    165 

Evolvulus    139 

Evonymus 115 

Fagopyrum 72 

Fagus 67 

Falcata 108 

Festuca 45 

Filix  28 

Fimbristylis  50 

Fceniculum   127 

Frasera    137 

Fragaria   94 

Fraxinus  135 

Froehlichia    '.  75 

Fumaria 85 

Gsetesia    154 

Galactia   109 

Galax   133 

Galeopsis 145 

Galinsoga 172 

Galium  155 

Gaultheria 132 

Gaura 125 

Gaylussacia 133 

Gelseminum  136 

Gemmingia 61 

Gentiana   137 

Geranium 110 

Gerardia   152 

Geum    95 

Gilia  140 

Glechoma 145 

Gleditschia   102 

Gnaphalium   167 

Gossypium 119 

Gratiola 151 

Grindelia  163 

Gymnocladus   102 

Gymnopogon 43 

Gynerium 43    i 

Gyrostachys   63    > 


Tennessee   Flora. 


181 


PAGE. 

Habenaria 62 

Hamamelis   92 

Hartmannia 125 

Hedeoma   140 

Helenium 172 

Helianthemum 121 

Helianthella  171 

Helianthus    170 

Heliopsis    169 

Heliotropium   141 

Hemerocallis    57 

Hemlcarpha   51 

Hepatica   81 

Heracleum    126 

Hesperis    98 

Heteranthera 55 

Heuchera, 91 

Hexalectris 64 

Hibiscus 119 

Hicorya   65 

Hieracium 161 

Holcus   41 

Homalocenchrus  39 

Hordeum  47 

Houstonia 155 

Humulus  70 

Hydrangea 91 

Hydrastis 79 

Hydrocotyle    129 

Hydrophyllum 141 

Hymenocallis 61 

Hypericum    120 

Hypopitis    131 

Hypoxis 61 

Hystrix    48 

Ilex 115 

Ilysanthes  151 

Tmpatiens   110 

Tndigofera 105 

Inula 168 

Iodanthus    86 

Ionactis   167 

Ipomoea    139 

Tresine  75 

Iris   61 

Isanthus    143 

Isnarda 124 

Isoetes 30 

Itea  92 

Ixophorus    38 

Jeffersonia 83 

Juglans    64 

Juncoides 56 

Juncus  55 

Juniperus    32 

Jussirea 124 


Kalmia  

KneifRa 

Kcehlreutera  HJ 

Krcllia 1J7 

Koniga    g9 

Korycarpus 14 

Kraunhia  105 

Kuhnia L63 

Kyllingia   49 

Laciniaria  1 63 

Lactuca   160 

Lagerstroemia 124 

Lagenaria   158 

Lamium 145 

Lappula 142 

Lathyrua  108 

|    Lavauxia 125 

Leavenworthia 87 

Lechea   121 

Legouzia    159 

Lemna   54 

"Leonurus 145 

Lepidium  85 

Leptamnium  153 

Leptandra    1  5 ] 

Leptilon  .  .■ 167 

Leptoehloa 

Leptorchis 

Lespedeza   107 

Lesquerella ss 

Leucothoe 132 

Ligusticum   127 

Ligustrum  136 

Lilium   

Limnanthemum  137 

Limodorum   

Linaria 150 

Linum    1 

Llppia '  ,:: 

Liguidambar 

Liriodendron    

Listera  

Lithoapermum  142 

Lobelia  159 

Lolium   

Lonlcera    '  ■" 

Ludwigia   

Luff  a  

Lupinus 

Lycium  1 

Lycopersicum  

Lycopodium   

Lycopua 1417 

Lygodium    

Lysimachia   ' 

Lytbrum    ! 


182 


Tennessee  Flora. 


PAGE. 

Magnolia 79 

Malapcena   84 

Malus    96 

Malvastrum 118 

Mariana 174 

Marrubium 144 

Marshallia 172 

Martynia 154 

Matricaria 173 

Medeola  59 

Medicago   103 

Meehania 144 

Meibomia 106 

Melampyrum    152 

Melanthium ■ 57 

Melia 112 

Melica 44 

Melilothus  103 

Melissa 146 

Melothria 159 

Menispermum 83 

Mentha 147 

Menziesia 132 

Mertensia    142 

Mimulus 150 

Mitchella 155 

Mitella  91 

Mohrodendron 135 

Mollugo   75 

Monarda 146 

Monniera  151 

Monotropa 131 

Monotropsis   131 

Morongia  102 

Morus  70 

Miihlenbergia 40 

Muscari   58 

Myosotis    142 

Myosurus 81 

Myriophyllum 126 

Nabalus  161 

Nama   141 

Nelumbo m 78 

Nemastylis   . ." 61 

Nemophila 141 

Nepeta 145 

Nicotiana 149 

Nothocalais  161 

Nothoscordium 58 

Nymphaea 78 

Nyssa  130 

Obolaria 137 

Oenothera  125 

Oldenlandia    155 

Onagra  124 

Onoclea    27 


PAGE. 

Onopordon 174 

Onosmodium 142 

Ophioglossum  27 

Opulaster 93 

Opuntia   123 

Orchis 62 

Origanum 146 

Ornithogalum 58 

Orobanche  153 

Orontium 54 

Oryza   39 

Osmunda 27 

Ostrya 66 

Oxalis  110 

Oxycoccus  133 

Oxydendron    132 

Oxytfolis 126 

Pachysandra 114 

Panax  126 

Panicularia   45 

Panicum 35 

I  Papaver   84 

j  Parietaria  71 

I  Parnassia 91 

j  Parosella 104 

Paronychia  78 

Parsonia    123 

Parthenium 169 

Parthenocissus 118 

Paspalum 35 

Passiflora 122 

I  Pastinaca 127 

Paulownia 150 

I  Pedicularis  152 

Pellaea 30 

Peltandra 53 

Pennisetum 39 

Pentstemon 150 

1  Penthorum    90 

Peramium  63 

Perilla    148 

!  Petalostemon   104 

Petunia 149 

Phacelia 141 

Phalaris 39 

Phaseolus    109 

Phegopteris 28 

Philadelphus 92 

Philotria   34 

Phleum 40 

Phlox 140 

Phoradendron  71 

Phryma   154 

Phyllanthus    112 

Phyllitis 29 

Physalis 148 


Tennessee   Plor, 


1  AGE. 

Physalodes   148 

Phy sostegia L45 

Phytolacca 75 

Picea 32 

Pieris  132 

Pimpinella 128 

Pinus   31 

Pisum  108 

Planera    69 

Plantago  154 

Platanus    93 

Pluchea 167 

Poa  45 

Podophyllum    83 

Podostemon    89 

Pogonia  63 

Polanisia   89 

Polemonium 141 

Polygala 112 

Polygonatum    59 

Polygonum   73 

Polymnia 168 

Polypodium 30 

Polypremum  136 

Polystichum 28 

Polytaenia   127 

Pontederia 55 

Populus  65 

Porteranthus 93 

Portulaca 76 

Potamogeton 33 

Potentilla 94 

Proserpinaca 125 

Prunella 145 

Prunus 100 

Psoralea 104 

Ptelea  Ill 

Pteridium   30 

Ptilimnium  129 

Punica   124 

Pyrola 130 

Pyrularia 71 

Pyrus  96 

Quamassia 58 

Quamoclit   139 

Quercus   67 

Ranunculus 82 

Raphanus 86 

Ratibida 170 

Rhamnus  117 

Rheum  73 

Rhexia  124 

Rhododendron   131 

Rhus 114 

Rhynchosia 109 

Rhynchospora 51 


PACI  . 

Ribes  

Ricinua 1 1:» 

Rbbinia ] n- 

Roripa    

Rosa   

Rotala i  _• ; 

Rubua  

Rudbekia  L69 

Ruellia   l :.  i 

Rumex   

Ruta ill 

Sabbathia    ]::•; 

Sagina 

Salix   

Salvia  144 

Sambucus 1 .",», 

Samolus 

Sanguinaria   B I 

Sanguisorba   

Sanlcula 127 

Saponaria   76 

Sarothra    121 

Saracenia 86 

Sassafras  

Satureja 147 

Saururus  

Saxifraga M) 

Schcenoliriuni  

Schwalbea L52 

Scirpus 

Scleranthus 78 

Scleria   51 

Serophularia L50 

Scutellaria ill 

Secale 

Sedum    

Selaginella    

Senecio 173 

Sericocarpus   166 

Sicyos 159 

Sfda 118 

Sieglingia   

Silene 

Silphium   169 

Sinapie  

Sisymbrium    

Sisyrincbium  

Sitilias 

Slum  

Smllax  

Solanum  '  *s 

Soil  dago 164 

Sonchua 160 

Sophia    

Sorbua  

Sorghum   


184 


Tennessee  Flora. 


Sparganium 33 

Spathyma 54 

Spartina 42 

Spermacoce 155 

Spermolepsis   129 

Spigelia  136 

Spinacia 74 

Spiraea   -. 93 

Spirodella  54 

Sporobolus    40 

Stachys    145 

Staphylea . .  115 

Steironema  134 

Stenanthium 56 

Stenophragma   88 

Stenophyllus 50 

Stillingia  113 

Stipa 40 

Streptopus 59 

Strophostyles 110 

Stuartia 119 

Stylophorum , . . .  84 

Stylosanthes 106 

Styrax 135 

Symphoricarpus 157 

Symphytum 142 

Symplocos   135 

Synandra 145 

Syndesmon  81 

Synosma 173 

Syntherisma 38 

Syringa 135 

Talinum 75 

Tanacetum 173 

Taraxacum   160 

Taxodium   32 

Taxus 33 

Tecoma 153 

Tetragonia 76 

Tetragonotheca   169 

Teucrium 143 

Thalesia 153 

Thalictrum 82 

Thaspium 127 

Therophon 91 

Thlaspi 86 

Thuja 32    I 

Thymus  147 

Tiarella  91 

Tilia  118    J 

Tipularia 64    j 

Toxylon  70 

Trachelospermum   138    I 

Tradescanthia 55    | 

Tragia 113    | 

Tragopogon 160    j 

Trautvetteria 81 


APCK. 

Triadenum 121 

Trianospermum 159 

Trichomanes 27 

Trichostema 143 

Trifolium 103 

Trillium 60 

Triosteum  156 

Tripsasum 34 

Trisetum  42 

Triticum   47 

Tsuga 32 

Typha 33 

Ulmaria 95 

Ulmus 69 

TJnifolium  59 

TTniola 44 

TJrtica 70 

Urticastrum ,71 

Utricularia  153 

Uvularia 57 

Vaccinium 133 

Vagnera 59 

Valeriana 157 

Valerianella    157 

Verbascum 149 

Verbena 143 

Verbesina 171 

Vernonia  162 

Veronica 151 

Viburnum 156 

Vicia 107 

Vigna   110 

Vinca : 137 

Vincetoxicum  138 

Viola 121 

Vitis  117 

Waldsteinia 94 

Washingtonia 128 

Wolffia 54 

Woodsia 28 

Woodwardia 28 

Xanthium   162 

Xanthorrhiza 80 

Xanthoxylum * 111 

Xerophyllum 56 

Xolisma   132 

Xyris 54 

Yucca  58 

Zannichelia 33 

Zea 34 

Zinnia 169 

Zizania 39 

Zizia 129 

Ziziphus 117 

Zygadenus 56 


PHILOSOPHY  OF  BOTANY. 


"  Naturae  vero  rerum  vis  atqne  majestas  onini  niniiruni  mo« 
mento  fide  caret,  si  quis  modo  partes  ejus  ac  non  totam  con- 
templatur  animo."      (Plin.  Hist.  Nat.) 

The  power  and  greatness  of  the  works  of  nature  lose  of  their 
true  comprehension  in  nearly  every  instance  when  the  mind 
seizes  on  particulars  and  does  not  embrace  the  whole. 


An  Epitome  of  the  History  and 
Philosophy  of  Botany. 


"  Opinion uiri   commenta  delet   dies,  naturae  judicia  confir- 

mat."     (Cicero.)    * 

In  the   history  of  mankind   we  observe  three  coi 
stages  of  culture.     In  the  first  we  find  men  ceaselessl)   en 
gaged  in  the  dire  struggle  for  the  daily  wants  of  maintei 
and  in  self-defense  until  they  acquire  the  faculty  of  providing 
for  regular  sustenance  and  enter  into  the  social  state.     They 
arrive  now  at  a  state  of  mental  composure,  inducing  it  of 

inquiry  into  the  nearer  or  remoter  relation  of  things  around 
them  and  their  applicability  to  their  benefit  or  pleasure.  Thus 
engaged,  they  collect  the  material  for  the  third  stat< 
education,  in  which  they  acquire  a  comprehension  of  mora"1 
law,  an  interpretation  of  the  physical  forces,  and  ultimately 
attain  to  the  ability  to  control  them  and  make  them  sal- 
ient to  their  will. 

Likewise  we  may  arrange  the  history  of  botany  in  three 
riods — of,  however,  very  unequal  duration,  and.  like  the  former. 
disturbed,  especially  in  the  earlier  states,  by  periodic  fluctu- 
ations. 

The  first  period  embraces  the  whole  time   from  the  incip 
iency  of  human  culture  to  the  late  periods  of  mediaeval  his 
lory,    from    Dioscorides    and    Theophrastus    to    the    Bauhins 
(1600),  in  which  plants  were  nearly  exclusively  attended 
relation  to  their  applicability  to  the  healing  art.  to  agriculture 
and  horticulture,  and  as  material  for  wood-work. 

The   second   period,   beginning   with    kajus   and    Turn< 
reaches  its  acme  in  the  Linnean  school,  and  is  strict 1\ 
fined  to  technical  botany;  that  is.  the  exact  description  and 
artificial  systematizing. 

The  beginning  of  the  third  and  really  scientific  period 
within  the  recollection  of  botanist-  yet  living,  who 
and  cooperated  in  the  rapid  ascendency  of  this  discipl 

In  this  instance  plants  are  treated  from  the  biol 

•  / 1      y     ^  * 


188  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

point,  as  living  organisms  developing  in  definite  phases  of 
growth  and  reproduction  with  regard  to  their  affinities  among 
themselves,  their  analogies  to  animal  and  human  life,  their 
dependencies  from  the  elements  in  which  they  are  placed,  the 
mutual  dependencies  among  themselves,  as  also  upon  animal 
life,  and  ultimately  the  human  race  itself.  Even  the  function 
of  the  human  intellect  is  shown  to  be  intertwined  with  the 
phenomena  of  their  sensitiveness  resembling  volition.  With 
the  scrutiny  of  the  origin  and  meaning  of  life  they  help  to 
transport  us  in  the  sphere  of  philosophy,  the  sublime  terminus 
of  science. 

The  earlier  phases  of  the  development  of  any  particular  sci- 
ence cannot  be  followed  up  otherwise  than  along  the  line  of 
general  intellectual  progress,  following  the  plan  of  gradual 
specializations.  How  this  process  evolved  in  the  struggles 
with  the  floods  and  eddies  of  history  I  wish  to  depict  within 
the  smallest  possible  compass,  with  the  special  aim  to  point 
out  the  interferences  which  even  at  this  day  have  not  ceased 
to  make  themselves  felt.  I  intend  to  proceed  like  a  navigator 
who  sails  around  a  continent,  directing  his  course  from  prom- 
ontory to  promontory.  To  follow  the  coast  line  and  explor- 
ingly  to  ascend  the  rivers  would  be  the  work  of  an  historian. 

The  birthplace  of  all  ideal  creations  of  the  human  mind  and 
also  of  the  natural  sciences  is  ancient  Athens,  and  the  origin 
of  scientific  botany  is  one  of  the  latest  fruits  which  matured 
from  the  flowery  epoch  of  Greece.  Great  statesmen,  heroes, 
genial  artists,  poets,  and  philosophers  had  in  unbroken  suc- 
cession followed  each  other  in  the  interval  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  betAveen  the  battles  of  Salamis  and  Arbela,  and  the 
Hellenic  genius  appeared  to  exhaust  itself  in  the  luxuriance  of 
its  productions.  The  first  school  of  philosophy  was  a  natural 
philosophy,  known  under  the  name  of  the  Ionian  school.  It 
originated  with  Thales,  the  Milesian,  who  first  calculated  the 
length  of  the  year  to  be  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days,  and 
was  the  first  who  predicted  a  solar  eclipse  and  called  water  the 
passive  principle  in  nature.  His  friend  and  disciple  was  An- 
aximander,  also  born  in  Miletus.  He  taught  that  the  universe, 
though  variable  in  its  parts,  as  one  whole  is  immutable.  The 
invention  of  the  sundial  is  ascribed  to  him.     Anaximenes,  also 


Philosophy  of  Botaott. 

a  Milesian,  born  B.C.  556,  conceived  the  air  or  ether  end 
with  a  divine  principle  and  the  celestial  bodies  of  i'ut\   nature 
Anaxagoras,  of  Clazomene,  taught  philosophy  in  Athens  B.C. 
500,  and  among  his  pupils  were  Euripides,  the  tragedian;  the 
orator  and  statesman,  Pericles;  Socrates,  and   Themistocles. 
He  originated  the   idea  of  the  dualism   of   mind   and   matter. 
For  his  assertion  that  the  so-called  divine  miracles  of  the  times 
were  nothing  more  than  common  natural  effects  he  was 
cused  of  impiety  toward  the  gods,  thrown  into  prison,  con- 
demned to  death,  and  barely  escaped  through  the  influence  of 
Pericles.     He  fled  to  Lampsacus,  where  he  ended  his  da 
exile. 

The  antagonism  between  learning  and  Polytheism  had  com- 
menced, and  became  from  day  to  day  more  apparent.  The 
natural  result  of  such  a  state  of  things  was  to  force  the  philos- 
ophers to  practice  concealment  and  mystification,  as  is  strik- 
ingly shown  in  the  history  of  the  Pythagoreans. 

This  school  was  started  by  Pythagoras  in  Croton,  in  L 
Italia,  a  province  called  Grecia  Magna.  Pythagoras  had  lived 
a  long  time  in  Egypt  among  the  priests  of  Thebes,  by  whom 
he  was  introduced  into  their  religious  secrets.  All  wisdom  and 
learning  was  held  there  by  the  sacerdotal  class,  and  their  ten- 
ets were  kept  concealed  from  the  common  populace,  which 
was  taught  to  receive  with  submission  and  obedience  the  doc- 
trines and  tenets  of  the  order.  The  independent  I  [ellenic  char- 
acter would,  however,  not  bend  to  such  rulings,  and  they  could 
only  practice  their  tenets  within  their  own  fraternity. 

Pythagoras  was  born  in  Samos  in  the  time  of  Tarquinius 
Superbus.  He  was  the  rirst  to  use  the  term  "philosophus." 
Out  of  esteem  for  his  sublime  wisdom  the  people  would  call 
him  "  Sophos  "  (the  wise  one).  He  declined  this  honor,  saj 
ing  that  he  was  only  a  philosophus.  a  friend  of  wisdom.  I  he 
most  important  dogma  of  his  school  is  the  assertion  that  the 
divinity  is  the  soul  of  the  world,  of  which  the  human  soul  is 
an  emanation,  and  that  it  will  revert  again  Into  the  former 
after  its  migrations  through  many  bodies,  He  laid  a  firm 
foundation  for  the  science  of  mathematics  among  the  Greeks. 

Besides  the  Pythagorean  flourished  also  the   Eleatic  5< 
of  philosophers,  of  which  Xenophanes.  of   Kolophon,   i-   tin- 


190  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

founder.  The  basis  of  their  doctrine  was  Pantheism,  the  un- 
ion of  all  things  into  one  indivisible  whole ;  that  God  and  the 
world  are  one  and  the  same. 

From  these  schools,  which  were  engaged  in  speculating 
about  the  nature  and  origin  of  things,  we  turn  now  to  the  So- 
cratic  school,  of  which  Socrates,  the  son  of  Sophroniscus  (B.C. 
469),  was  the  founder.  His  father  was  a  statuary,  and  his 
mother,  Phaenarete,  a  midwife.  In  his  youth  he  followed  the 
trade  of  his  father,  and  became  a  successful  artist.  Later,  and 
under  the  protection  of  Crito,  a  wealthy  Athenian,  to  whom 
he  served  as  an  instructor  of  his  children,  he  gave  up  his  occu- 
pation and  attached  himself  to  the  school  of  Anaxagoras, 
Archelaus,  and  others,  and  became  master  of  every  kind  of 
learning  which  the  age  in  which  he  lived  could  afford.  For 
three  times  in  succession  he  also  served  his  country  in  military 
capacity  with  great  distinction.  After  he  had  reached  an  age 
of  nearly  fifty-six  years,  he,  for  a  while,  served  in  a  civil  office 
in  the- Senate  of  the  Five  Hundred.  From  his  wide  experience 
in  public  life  he  had  regretfully  observed  how  much  the  opin- 
ions of  the  Athenian  youth  were  misled  and  their  principles 
and  taste  corrupted  by  philosophers,  who  spent  all  their  time 
in  refined  speculations  upon  the  nature  and  origin  of  things, 
and  by  sophists,  who  taught  in  their  schools  the  arts  of  false 
eloquence  and  deceitful  reasoning.  To  amend  this  evil  he 
conceived  the  wise  and  generous  design  of  instituting  a  new 
and  more  useful  method  of  instruction.  He  justly  concluded 
the  true  end  of  philosophy  to  be,  not  to  make  an  ostentatious 
display  of  learning,  and  oratory,  but  to  free  mankind  from  the 
dominion  of  pernicious  prejudices,  to  correct  their  vices,  to  in- 
spire them  with  the  love  of  virtue,  and  thus  conduct  them  over 
the  path  of  wisdom  to  true  felicity.  His  method  of  instruc- 
tion was  in  the  form  of  dialogue,  in  which  he  endeavored  with- 
out persuasion  to  deduce  the  truths  of  which  he  wished  to  con- 
vince a  person  as  a  necessary  consequence  of  his  own  conces- 
sions. His  favorite  maxim  was :  "  Whatever  is  above  us  does 
not  concern  us."  He  estimated  the  value  of  knowledge  by  its 
utility,  and  recommended  the  study  of  geometry,  astronomy, 
and  other  sciences  only  so  far  as  they  admit  of  practical  appli- 
cation to  the  purposes  of  human  life. 


PHJXOSOrHY  OF  BoTAX  Y.  191 

Cicero  said  of  him  that  he  was  the  first  who  called  down 
Philosophy  from  heaven  to  eartli  and  introduced  her  Into  the 
public  walks  and  domestic  retirements  of  nun,  thai  she  might 
instruct  them  concerning  life  and  manners. 

His  continuous,  severe  arraignment  of  the  horde  of  SOp 
hypocritical  priests,  and  selfish  politicians  gave  rise  to  a  p 
of  dangerous  and  unscrupulous  enemies.     His  endeavor  • 
graft  upon  the  mind  of  the  youth  the  idea  of  the  exist* 

one  supreme  Being  threatened  the  interests  of  tin   priestfa 1. 

who  stirred  up  the  fanaticism  of  the  common  people  1>\  de- 
nouncing him  as  a  contemptor  of  the  gods.  Although  he  wa- 
in the  seventieth  year  of  his  age,  they  could  not  await  his 
ural  demise.  The  accusation  was  delivered  to  the  Senate  in 
the  name  of  Melitus,  and  read  thus:  "  Melitus.  son  of  Melitus, 
of  the  tribe  of  Pythos,  accuseth  Socrates,  son  of  Sophroniscus, 
of  the  tribe  of  Alopeces.  Socrates  violates  the  law  in  not  ac 
knowledging  the  gods,  which  the  State  acknowledges,  and  bj 
introducing  new  divinities.  He  also  violates  the  laws  by  cor- 
rupting the  youth.  Be  his  punishment  death."  Aft  it  a  mock 
trial,  he  was  condemned  to  be  put  to  death  by  the  poison  of 
hemlock.  Thus  died  one  of  the  most  virtuous  men.  a  victim 
to  priestcraft  and  unscrupulous  politicians. 

With  truth  Socrates  said  at  the  close  of  his  speech  in  self- 
defense  to  the  judges  who  had  condemned  him:  "It  is  now 
time  that  we  depart — I  to  die,  you  to  live;  but  which  has  the 
better  destiny  is  unknown  to  all  except  God."  His  memory 
was  honored  and  his  name  immortalized  by  two  oi  his  disci- 
ples, who  became  his  biographers,  Xenophon  and  Plato.  It 
was  also  a  blessed  termination  of  an  advanced  period  of  life 
to  die  in  behalf  of  virtue  and  morality. 

After  the  passing  away  of  Socrates,  other  schools  arose  pro- 
fessing to  be  founded  upon  his  principles — the  Megaric,  headed 
by  Euclid;  the  Cyrenaic,  founded  by  Aristippus;  and  the  l 
ical  school,  originated  by  Antisthenes.  It  is  a  melanchol}  aa 
pect  to  contemplate  the  sudden  upset  of  sublime  thought  into 
moral  mire  of  those  sophistical  extremists.  The  name  oi 
Diogenes,  of  Sinope,  has  come  down  to  us  as  an  inimitable  ex- 
ample of  a  humorous  pessimist.  This  temporary  eclipse  ol 
the  Hellenic  genius  soon  passed  over,  recognized  as  a  discred- 


192  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

itable  delusion.  Like  a  metempsychosis  of  the  soul  of  Soc- 
rates, his  chief  disciple,  Plato,  continued  and  embellished  the 
work  of  his  master.  To  the  bent  of  mind  attained  in  the  so- 
ciety of  Socrates  within  eight  or  ten  years  he  added  all  that 
could  be  obtained  from  the  philosophers  of  Egypt,  Cyrene, 
Persia,  and  Tarentum.  Of  noble  and  illustrious  parentage, 
lie  numbered  Solon  among  his  ancestors ;  also  possessing  the 
advantage  of  wealth,  he  concluded  to  establish  a  school  in  the 
grove  of  Hecademus.  There  he  devoted  himself  to  science, 
and  spent  the  last  years  of  a  long  life  in  the  instruction  of 
youth,  and,  arriving  at  the  eighty-first  year  of  his  age,  died  from 
gradual  decay  of  nature.  His  portrait  is  preserved  to  this  day 
in  antique  gems,  but  the  most  lasting  monuments  of  his  genius 
are  his  writings,  which  have  been  transmitted  without  material 
injury  to  the  present  time. 

The  powerful  effect  of  the  writings  of  Plato  is  equally  pro- 
duced by  their  external  form  as  by  their  internal  value.  The 
elegant  world  of  letters  which  so  readily  sacrifices  the  essence 
of  a  literary  production  to  the  form  in  which  it  is  presented 
would  never  have  paid  such  homage  to  Plato  had  it  not  been 
for  the  art  of  presentation  and  introduction  of  his  ideas,  which 
he  knew  how  to  handle  in  a  masterly  way.  Even  when  he 
chastises  his  sophistic  adversaries  with  pungent  ridicule,  he 
never  passes  beyond  the  limits  of  decency  and  dignity. 

All  his  works  are  rendered  in  dialectic  form,  displaying  an 
equally  philosophical  and  poetical  style.  Various  as  were  the 
models  of  literary  style  which  he  had  before  him,  to  none,  how- 
ever, was  he  more  indebted  than  to  Aristophanes,  the  come- 
dian, in  depicting  the  life  and  actions  of  men.  He  also  made 
much  use  of  Indian  and  Egyptian  myths  and  mysteries,  and 
handled  with  great  caution  in  those  discussions  questions 
which  penetrated  into  the  field  of  the  religious  faith  of  his  coun- 
trymen. Many  sentences  are  obscure  and  ambiguous  to  avoid 
conflict.  He  knew  of  the  dismal  fate  which  shortly  before  his 
day  had  overtaken  Anaxagoras ;  Diagoras,  of  Melos ;  Prota- 
goras, of  Abdera ;  and  Prodicus,  of  Keos — all  of  whom  were 
prosecuted  for  alleged  irreverence  against  the  gods.  The  lat- 
ter was  first  banished,  his  writings  publicly  burned  and  their 
possession  and  sale  interdicted,  and  he  himself  condemned  ul- 


Philosophy  of  Botany. 

timately  and  executed.     This  is  the  first  instance  in  the  annals 
of  history  of  the  procedure-  of  public  combustion  of  condemned 

writings. 

While  at  this  epoch  several  speculative,  philosophical  s  :hools 
nourished;  the  arts,  dramatic  poetry,  and  oratory  had  reached 
the  climax  of  perfection;  and  peace  reigned  on  the 
side  of  the  Hellespont,  the  Macedonian  campaign  in  Asia,  the 
culminating  point  in  the  strategy  of  ancient  history,  swept 
over  the  Persian  Empire,  crushing  the  hereditary  fo< 
Greece.  The  daring  and  gifted  son  of  the  shrewd  Philip  of 
Macedon,  had  in  rapid  strides  subdued  all  the  eastern  nations 
from  the  oasis  of  Jupiter  Amnion  to  the  distant  Bactria.  In 
the  short  space  of  time  between  the  battle  on  the  Granicus 
(June,  B.C.  334)  to  the  battle  at  Arbella  and  Gaugamela 
tober,  B.C.  331)  the  whole  of  the  Persian  Empire,  with  all  its 
outlying  appendages,  had,  by  right  of  conquest,  become  tin- 
property  of  the  victor.  With  the  death  of  Darius  (July,  B.C. 
330),  Alexander  became  also  the  legitimate  heir  to  1  )ariu>,  the 
king,  in  accordance  with  Oriental  custom  and  tradition-. 

The  unrestrained  and  ambitious  Alexander  came  t<>  a  hah 
only  through  the  irrepressible  objection  of  his  entire  army 
after  crossing  the  Indus  in  its  upper  course.  IK-  met  and  de- 
feated there  Porus,  an  independent  ruler,  in  the  populous  and 
rich  Pendschab.  Here  the  Macedonians  for  the  first  time 
faced  the  peculiar  Indian  armament,  a  train  of  armed  ele- 
phants, who,  though  fierce  and  valiant  fighters,  could  not  with- 
stand the  undaunted  valor  of  Alexander's  warriors.  The  -: 
of  the  Hyphasis,  an  eastern  tributary  of  the  Indus,  on  the  foot 
of  the  Himalayas,  became  the  terminus  ni  his  advance.  Tin- 
reduction  of  Persia  was  an  act  of  policy  and  retribution,  l'nr 
ther  extension  of  dominion  would  only  glorify  personal  am- 
bition, wrould  be  an  impious  frenzy.  In  a  general  council  "t 
war  the  return  was  insisted  upon,  and  the  order  for  return  met 
the  greatest  gratification  of  the  soldiers,  whose  homesick 
hearts  grieved  for  Hellas  and  the  I  Olympian  games.  At  the 
end  of  the  summer  (B.C.  320)  the  home  march  was  com- 
menced, and  continued  into  Persia  under  many  difficulties  ami 
exposures.  Engaged  with  plans  for  the  consolidation  *^i  his 
empire,  he  designed  to  make    Babylon   Ins   future   residence 

7 


194  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

There  his  premature  death  ended  his  career,  and  the  ungovern- 
able expanse  of  territory  became  divided  among  his  generals. 

Great  as  were  the  political  results  of  the  Macedonian  expedi- 
tion, they  were  equaled  by  the  intellectual.  A  longing  had 
taken  hold  of  the  minds  to  descend  to  the  roots  from  which 
sprung  the  fascinating  Platonic  ideas. 

Penetrating  into  the  tropical  climate  of  India,  with  its  di- 
versified fauna  of  big  or  fierce  species,  gigantic  vegetation  dis- 
played in  impenetrable  bamboo  jungles,  and  entering  into  the 
ancient  seats  of  culture  older  than  the  one  of  the  pyramid 
builders,  with  a  national  character  disposed  to  quiet  contem- 
plation, the  conquerors  were  yet  more  amazed  by  the  contrast 
of  life  and  manners  of  the  conservative  Indian  people  with 
their  own  progressive,  stormy,  vacillating  national  life.  Their 
experiences — political,  geographical,  ethical — were  destined  to 
prepare  a  reaction  upon  Grecian  life  and  thought.  The  inter- 
mixture of  Greek  elements  among  the  immense  throngs  of 
the  Oriental  nationalities  sufficed  only  for  a  transient  stir, 
after  which  they  relapsed  again  into  their  hereditary  quietism. 
The  Greek  character,  on  the  contrary,  took  in  much  of  the 
novel  and  foreign  element. 

In  the  resulting  new  empires  governed  by  Grecian  rulers, 
Grecian  ideas  were  soon  universally  felt,  but  nowhere  with 
such  lasting  effect  as  in  the  domain  of  the  Ptolemeans  and 
in  the  city  founded  by  Alexander,  Alexandria,  the  cardinal 
point  around  which  in  the  near  future  ruled  the  intellectual 
progress  of  Europe  for  several  centuries.  It  is  an  unparalleled 
incident  in  history  that  the  same  period  could  produce  a  genius 
competent  to  understand  the  existing  philosophical  systems 
and  to  remodel  and  enlarge  all  sciences  (Aristotle),  and  also 
a  hero  of  cultivated  mind,  attentive  to  progress,  and  unlimited 
ability  for  execution  (Alexander). 

Aristotle  was  born  in  Stagyra,  a  town  in  Thracia,  belong- 
ing to  the  dominion  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  B.C.  384.  He 
was  the  favored  disciple  of  Plato,  and  remained  in  the  acad- 
emy to  the  time  of  the  death  of  his  master,  when  he  was  thirty- 
seven  years  of  age.  Philip,  having  heard  of  his  extraordinary 
abilities,  invited  him  to  his  court,  and  put  him  in  charge  of  his 
son,  Alexander,  who  was  then  (B.C.  343)  fifteen  years  of  age. 


r„ 


ll-OS(>l'JlY    Ol      |>it|  AW. 


Honored  with  the  esteem  and  confidence  of  the  king,  h< 
joyed  a  true  filial  attachment  of  the  juvenile  Alexan 
whom   he   remained   until    he   opened    his   Asiatic   camp; 

After   Aristotle   had    thus   left    his    pupil,    th 
friendly  correspondence,   in    which    the   philosopher   ; 
upon  Alexander  to  employ  his  increasing  power  and  wealth  in 
the  service  of  philosophy  by  furnishing  him  in  his  retirement 
with  the  means  of  enlarging  his  acquaintance   with   nature 
Alexander  responded  to  this  request  with  an  abundant  supply 
of  specimens  of  objects  of  natural  history  from  both  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms,  and  which  were  either  maintained  in 
zoological  gardens  or  preserved  in  a  museum.     Upon  this 
lection  he  composed  a  work  of  fifty  volumes  on  the  history  of 
animated  nature,  only  ten  of  which  are  now  extant.      II- 
wrote  on  the  nature  of  plants,  and  collected  notes  and  obser 
vations  from  scattering  writings  on  natural  history  for  centu- 
ries before  him.     He  arranged  his  objects  in  systematic  d 
sition,  created  a  scientific  language  for  exact   definition,  and 
taught  the  graduations  into  classes,  genera,  species,  and  indi- 
viduals.    This  made  him  the  creator  and   founder  of  natural 
history. 

He  was  an  exceedingly  productive  writer,  and  his  utterances 
were  the  illuminating  beacon  of  philosophy  and  science  for  all 
nations  for  twenty  centuries.     7  he  writings  generally  received 
under   his   name   may   be   classed    under   the   head-   of 
physics,  metaphysics,  mathematics,  ethics,  rhetoric,  and  p 

After  his  departure  from  Alexander,  Aristotle  ret  urn  < 
Athens  and  resolved  to  acquire  the  fame  of  a  leader  in  philos- 
ophy by  founding  a  new  sect,  in  opposition  to  the.  academy. 
and  teaching  a  system  of  doctrines  different  from  that  of  Plato. 
He  chose  a  place  in  the  suburbs  of  Athens,  a  grove,  called  the 
Lyceum.  From  his  habit  of  walking  while  he  delivered  his 
discourses  his  followers  were  called  Peripatetics.  He 
tinued  his  school  for  twelve  years. 

The  philosophical  method  of  Aristotle  is  the  inverse  of  that 
of  Plato.,  wdiose  starting  point  was  universal-,  the  very  i 
ence  of  which  was  a  matter  of  faith,  and   from  there  he  de- 
scended  upon   particulars  or   details.     Aristotle,   on    the   con 
trary,  rose  from  particulars  to  universals,  advancing  t..  them 


196  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

by  inductions  :  and  his  system,  thus  an  inductive  philosophy, 
was  in  reality  the  true  beginning  of  science. 

Here  it  must  be  observed  that,  notwithstanding  his  correct 
and  scientific  method,  his  time  was  not  in  possession  of  the 
sufficient  knowledge  needed  to  support  such  a  vast  edifice  as 
he  aimed  to  construct,  and  many  of  his  statements  are  asser- 
tions deficient  in  proof.  The  superiority  of  his  abilities  and 
the  novelty  of  his  doctrines  created  him  many  rivals  and 
enemies,  against  whose  assaults  he  was  well  shielded  through 
the  influence  of  his  friend,  Alexander ;  but  after  the  death 
of  Alexander  the  fire  of  jealousy  burst  into  a  flame  of  per- 
secution. Eurymedon,  a  priest,  was  instigated  to  accuse 
him  of  holding  and  promulgating  impious  tenets.  Opinions 
of  his,  pointing  to  the  denial  of  the  necessity  of  prayers  and 
sacrifices,  were  to  be  resented  as  inimical  to  existing  religious 
institutions.  Aristotle  became  apprehensive  of  meeting  the 
fate  of  Socrates,  and  concluded  to  retire  and  leave  Athens.  "  I 
am  not  willing/'  says  he,  "  to  give  the  Athenians  an  opportu- 
nity of  committing  a  second  offense  against  philosophy."  He 
departed  for  Chalcis,  where  he  died  in  the  sixty-third  year  of 
his  age. 

When  Aristotle  withdrew  from  the  charge  of  the  Peripa- 
tetic school  in  the  Lyceum,  his  disciples  importuned  him  to 
nominate  a  successor.  In  compliance  with  their  request,  he 
appointed  to  the  chair  one  of  his  favorite  pupils,  Theophrastus. 
B.C.  323.  This  philosopher  was  a  native  of  Eresus,  in  Lesbos. 
He  had  studied  under  Alcippus,  Plato,  and  Aristotle.  When 
lie  undertook  the  charge  of  the  Peripatetic  school,  he  con- 
ducted it  with  such  high  reputation  that  he  had  about  two 
thousand  scholars,  among  whom  were  Nicomachus,  the  son  of 
Aristotle,  whom  his  father  intrusted,  by  will,  to  his  charge. 
He  lived  to  the  advanced  age  of  eighty-five.  His  last  advice 
to  his  disciples  was  that  "  since  it  is  the  lot  of  man  to  die  as 
soon  as  he  begins  to  live,  they  would  take  more  pains  to  enjoy 
life  as  it  passes  than  to  acquire  posthumous  fame."  He  wrote 
many  valuable  works,  of  which  all  that  remain  are  two  books, 
"  On  the  Natural  History  of  Plants  "  and  treatises  "  On  Fossils 
and  Metaphysical  Fragments."  With  this  work  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  scientific  botany. 


Philosophy  of  Botany.  19? 

That  some  plants  were  known  by  specific  names  lonj 
Aristotle  and  Theophrastus  is  quite  evident.     I  »t  main   their 
real  or  alleged  wholesome  or  noxious  qualities  were  kno 
pharmacopolists,  others  to  gardeners  for  adornments  in  us 

religions  ceremonies  or  for  sorcery.     Vintagers  and  agricul- 
turists had  made  and  collected  observations  and  experii 
with  the  cultivated  plants,  and  much  empyrical  knowled 
aid  of  success  and  profit  in  culture-  had  accumulated  and 
in  general  circulation.     But  efforts  directed  toward  lucre  and 
increase  of  wealth  only  do  not   possess   the   elevating   moral 
character  of  science.     This  term  signifies  the  operation  of  such 
an  intellectual  energy  which  is  spent  in  the  discovery  of  t ruth 
or  the  elimination  from  our  judgments  of  that   which  is 
impure,  or  confused. 

Science  begins  as  soon  as  the  student  commences  to  ana- 
lyze critically  observations  made  by  himself  or  others,  to  a 
ciate  their  relations,  and  to  bring  to  light  the  remote  or  occult 
sources  of  externally  visible  phenomena. 

With  this  motive  in  his  mind  Aristotle  founded  the  science 
of  nature  in  general,  and  Theophrastus  became  the  fat ' 
scientific  botany.     Not  only  that,  but  he  collected  a  surpris- 
ing array  of  trite  and  simple  observations  upon   native  and 
exotic  species  gathered  from  the  columns  of  Hercules  to  the 
plains  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  waters  of  the  Indus,  from  the 
cataracts  of  the  Nile  to  the  shores  of  the  Pontus;  he  did  not 
confine  his  attention  to  vegetables  of  common  utility  only,  but 
he  inquired  with  equal   zeal  into  the   nature  of  the   humblest 
plants  when  they  appeared   to  him   to  confer  to   the   solu 
of  general  problems,  which  was  the  main  object  of  hi-  studies. 
He  queried:    Wherein  consists  the  difference  between  plant 
and  animal?     Which  are  the  organs  of  the  plant:     Wl 
the  function  of  root,  stem,  leaves,  and  fruit?     To  what  age  do 
plants  attain?     What  causes  them  to  take  on  dii  How 

can  their  diseases  be  prevented  or  be  remedied?     What  influ- 
ence on  their  thrift   exert   heat   or  cold,   moisture  or  dry 
external  injuries  or  excessive  fruit  bearing,  can  or  negl< 
cultivation,   soil   or  climate?      Can   a   plant    originate   sp 
neously?     Can  one  species  transform  itself  into  another 
How  do  plants  grown  from  seed  differ  from  those  grown  from 


198  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

cuttings?  With  such  and  similar  inquiries  dealt  Theophras- 
tus.  They  were  in  the  main  the  same  ones  which  yet  in  our 
day  occupy  the  attention  of  the  botanist. 

It  is  in  the  proposition  of  these  questions,  rather  than  in  the 
answers  to  them,  wherein  the  scientific  maturity  of  the  school 
of  Aristotle  manifests  itself.  The  preparatory  studies  which 
ought  to  have  preceded  were  as  yet  entirely  insufficient.  Verv 
pointedly  remarks  Goethe :  "  If  one  takes  a  view  of  the  prob- 
lems of  Aristotle,  one  is  seized  with  surprise  at  the  ingenuity 
of  observation  and  universality  of  attention  by  the  Greeks. 
Yet  they  fall  into  error  from  presumption,  as  they  do,  with 
too  much  haste,  jump  from  the  phenomenon  to  the  explanation 
of  its  cause,  whereby  they  construct  incomplete  and  untenable 
theories."  Could  any  one  of  the  two  thousand  attendants  as- 
sembled in  the  arcades  of  the  Lyceum  at  Athens,  listening  to 
the  discourses  of  Theophrastus,  have  been  brought  to  think 
that  the  rearing  of  the  scientific  structure  so  auspiciously  in- 
itiated would  soon  experience  a  subsidence  of  nearly  two  thou- 
sand years  before  the  work  could  be  continued  and  ultimately 
carried  to  perfection  as  planned  by  its  inventor?  But  the  up- 
heaval, political  as  well  qs  intellectual,  of  that  age  was  so  im- 
mense that  also  the  stability  of  philosophical  principles  be- 
came affected.  Greece  and  Macedonia  were  involved  in  con- 
tinual rebellion  and  wars,  reducing  the  population,  laying 
waste  the  land,  destroying  the  industries.  Last  the  Romans 
found  an  opportunity  to  settle  their  quarrels.  A  Roman  army 
under  the  command' of  Cecilius  Metellus  occupied  Macedonia 
after  the  defeat  of  the  strategus  Andronicus  (B.C.  148),  and 
two  years  afterwards,  in  a  renewed  campaign,  the  whole  of 
Attica  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  rude  and  ignorant  Lucius 
Mummius,  who  wantonly  ruined  and  despoiled  Corinth.  The 
whole  of  Greece  was  now  annexed  to  the  Roman  Empire  under 
the  administration  of  a  Roman  pnetor. 

The  policy  of  Alexander  the  Great  to  amalgamate,  as  it  were, 
Oriental  and  Greek  culture  utterly  failed  in  the  Asiatic  States 
by  absorption  of  the  Greek  character  into  the  Oriental.  The 
reverse  occurred  in  the  city  of  Alexandria,  the  capital  of  the 
Ptolemeans. 

I  am  glad  to  record  here  an  act  of  Alexander  which  embel- 


Philosophy  01  Boi  any. 

lished  his  philosophical  and  liberal  chara  much  as 

heroism  and  victories  immortalized  his  nam.    as 
and   statesman.     When   he  built   the  city  of    V 
peopled  it  with  immigrants  from  various  countries,  opei 
new  seat  for  philosophy,  he  granted  a  general  indulj 
the  promiscuous  crowd  assembled  in  this  rising  city,  wl  ■ 
Egyptians,  Grecians.  Jews,  or  others,  to  profess  th< 
tive  systems  of  philosophy  and  religion   without   mol 
The  consequence  was  that  Egypt  was  seoti  filled  with  i 
and  philosophical  sectaries  of  every  kind,  and  particularly 
almost  every  Grecian  sect  found  an  advocate  and  pro! 
Alexandria. 

The  family  of  the  Ptolemies,  who,  after  Alexander  obtained 
the  government  of  Egypt,  from  motives  of  policy  and  Ders 
enlightenment,  encouraged  this  new  establishment.      Ptolemy 
Lagns  removed  the  schools  of  Athens  to  Alexandria.      In  or- 
der to  provide  in  Alexandria  a  permanent  residence  for  I 
ing  and  philosophy,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  a  library,  which 
after  his  time  became  exceedingly   famous;   granted   phil 
phers  of  every  class  immunity  from  public  offices;  and  encour 
aged  science  and  literature  with  royal  munificence.      His 
cessor,  Ptolemy   Philadelphia,  added   to  the   library,  and   in- 
stituted a  college  of  learned  men.  who.  that  they  might  have 
leisure  to  prosecute  their  studies,  were  maintained  at  the  pub- 
lic expense. 

The  ethical  character  of  this  period  displayed  a  marked  in- 
clination to  utilitarianism,  and.  with  the  development  of  wealth 
and  luxury,  a  desire  to  adorn   refined   sensualism   with   I 
physical  speculations.     In  such  times  may  only  such  lean 
and  such  sciences  flourish   which  are  applicable   to  external 
wants,   as   are   mathematics,   mechanics,   ph;  nd    m< 

cine. 

In  the  natural  sciences  the   Alexandrian  school  continued 
to  build  upon   the  foundation   laid   by   Aristotle   and   Theo- 
phrastus,  but  unfortunately  assumed  again  much  of  the  s\ 
ulative  way  of   Plato.     Physiology   and   anatomy,  chen 
and    botany    profited    by    it.      Herophilus    and 
founded  two  opposing  medical  schools.     The  former  ann< 
botany  to  the  medical  curriculum. 


200  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

Under  the  last  of  the  Ptolemies  appeared  the  celebrated  bot- 
anist, Dioscorides,  whose  writings  stood  out  as  the  guide  and 
groundwork  in  botany  for  the  Arabs  as  well  as  the  Occidental 
nations  to  mediaeval  times. 

Alexandria  can  also  boast  of  having  produced  or  supported 
Eratosthenes,  Euclid,  and  Archimedes  in  mathematics,  and 
Hipparchus,  the  greatest  astronomer  of  ancient  time. 

Of  the  many  writings  of  Dioscorides  have  been  preserved 
his  work,  "  De  Materia  Medica,"  and  the  "Alexipharmaca ;  or, 
About  Poisons  and  Antidotes."  His  death  occurred  toward 
the  end  of  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  while  the  fame 
of  the  Alexandrian  school  was  yet  at  its  climax. 

Philosophy  during  this  period  suffered  a  grievous  corruption 
from  the  attempt  which  was  made  by  philosophers  of  different 
sects  and  countries — Grecian,  Egyptian,  Oriental — who  were 
assembled  in  Alexandria  to  frame  from  their  different  tenets 
one  general  system  of  opinions.  Herein  originated  Neo-Pla- 
tonism,  a  religious  philosophy,  distinguished  for  the  conflict  it 
maintained  with  the  rising  power  of  Christianity.  Its  author 
was  Plotinus,  an  Egyptian,  born  about  A.D.  204. 

Another  outcrop  of  this  connubium  is  the  Cabbala,  a  Jewish 
sect.  This  system  contains  some  profound  tenets,  polluted 
with  many  erratic  superstitions.  One  of  these  asserts  that 
God  had  imprinted  upon  all  plants  certain  marks,  from  which 
the  initiated  and  gifted  could  read  their  manifold  qualities. 
Adam,  in  paradise,  is  said  to  have  been  instructed  by  God  him- 
self, but  to  have  lost  the  secret  when  he  was  expelled  from 
paradise.  It  was  revealed  again  unto  Solomon.  The  name  of 
one  of  our  liliaceous  plants,  "  Solomon's  seal  "  (Polygonatum 
officinale),  points  to  this  myth.      (Doctrine  of  signatures.) 

The  poetical,  romantic,  and  inquisitive  spirit  of  the  Aris- 
totelian time  had  died  out.  One  part  of  humanity  was  de- 
pressed by  intellectual  inertia  produced  from  absolute  realism 
or  sensual  debauchery ;  the  other  lay  chained  by  remorseless 
oppressors,  with  no  hope  to  free  themselves  by  their  own 
valor.  The  hearts  of  men  ached  with  a  desire  for  a  new  order 
in  the  affairs  of  humanity,  grieved  with  a  desire  for  some 
source  of  delivery. 

Not  one  of  the  countries  subiect  to  the  Roman  rule  had  suf- 


Philosophy  of  I J<  >t  a n  v.  801 

fered  a  greater  degradation  than  Judea,  at  that  time  \ 
by  the  vicious  tyrant,  Antipater.  More  vivid  than  ever  b 
in  the  hardest  trials  grew  the  expectancy  of  tin-  pious  k 
the  advent  of  the  deliverer,  the  messenger  of  Jehovah,  who 
should,  as  promised  by  the  prophets,  deliver  them  from  their 
oppressors  and  be  the  God-appointed  King  over  th< 
people,  to  reside  in  Jerusalem.  The  learned  classes  of  Syria 
and  Palestine  were  habitually  disposed  to  disputations  upon 
the  meaning  of  their  own  ancient  religious  literature.  The 
Hebrew  language  was  already  a  dead  language  and  the  holy 
writings  in  the  hands  of  the  Levites  and  the  scribe-  as  inter- 
preters. The  ancient  creed  divided  in  three  opposing  - 
one  of  which,  the  sect  of  the  Esseniens,  distinguished  them- 
selves by  their  religious  devotion  and  purity  of  life.  Among 
the  Esseniens  formed  a  separate  society,  who  endeavored  t<> 
perfect  themselves  by  acts  of  penitence  and  self-inflicted  tor- 
ments, the  Nasireans.  John  the  Baptist  was  a  member  of  this 
sect.  He  was  a  cousin  of  Jesus,  taught  the  doctrines  of  the 
Esseniens,  urging  his  hearers  to  repentance  and  good  conduct, 
and  immersed  in  water,  as  an  emblem  of  purification,  all  those 
who  promised  to  follow  his  exhortations.  When  Jesus  (the 
son  of  Joseph  and  Mary,  of  poor,  but  noble,  lineage  I  came 
to  him,  he  also  submitted  to  this  symbol,  and  was  then  de- 
clared by  John  as  the  expected  Messiah.  Without  doubting 
the  correctness  of  the  statement  as  given  by  the  evangelists, 
there  is,  however,  a  large  scope  for  comment  by  the  student  <>; 
the  comparative  history  of  religions.  The  Essenien  doctrines 
were  very  much  the  same  as  those  of  the  Buddhists,  rhey 
also  used  ablutions  in  water  as  a  symbol  of  purification  of  tin 
heart.  In  like  manner  did  the  Buddhists,  on  command  of  their 
master,  send  out  missionaries  in  all  lands  to  spread  their  doc- 
trines. 

In  this  simple  and  unpretending  language  of  Christ  exhort 
ing  to  justice,  love,  and  forbearance;  in  the  exalted  example 
of  his  pure  and  noble  life,  the  fidelity  ^\  In-  mission  sealed  by 
his  death,  humanity  received  the  guide  to  the  accomplishment 
of  the  heavenly  promise  of  peace  t<>  man  upon  earth,  to  the 
only  one  possible  happiness  in  a  necessarily  imperfect  world. 
But  he  was  ill  understood  during  hi-  own  life  even  by  those 


202  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

nearest  to  him,  and  humanity  proved  itself  unworthy  of  his 
promise  at  his  ultimate  departure  that  he  would  send  that  Holy 
Spirit  that  would  teach  them  every  truth ;  for  truth  nearly  two 
thousand  years  had  to  pass  before  this  Holy  Spirit  could  as- 
sert his  influence  in  the  revelations  of  science.  Christianity, 
however,  is  not  a  reform  of  Judaism,  a  mere  advance  beyond 
Philo,  but  a  synthesis  of  the  Semitic  and  Aryan  thought,  and 
its  strength  lies  in  its  power  to  calm  the  cravings  of  the  heart 
and  satisfy  the  postulates  of  reason.  On  these  premises  will 
stand  the  Christianity  of  the  future. 

Far  removed  as  the  essence  of  the  divinity  is  in  the  ancient 
Jewish  faith,  even  as  close  are  both  the  natures  drawn  together 
through  the  idea  of  the  Logos,  a  concept  of  thoroughly  Greek 
origin,  explained  already  by  Heraclitus,  Zeno,  and  Athenag- 
oras.  Christianity,  confined  to  Jerusalem,  would  never  have 
advanced  beyond  the  Talmud.  Its  influence  on  the  world  at 
large  began  with  the  conversion  of  men  who  then  represented 
the  world,  who  stood  in  the  front  rank  of  philosophical 
thought,  who  had  been  educated  in  the  schools  of  Greek  phi- 
losophy, and  who,  in  adopting  Christianity  as  their  religion, 
showed  to  the  world  that  they  were  able  honestly  to  reconcile 
their  own  philosophical  convictions  with  the  religious  and 
moral  teaching  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  Those  who  are  truly 
called  the  fathers  and  founders  of  the  Christian  church  were 
not  the  simple-minded  fishermen  of  Galilee,  but  men  who  had 
received  the  highest  education  which  could  be  obtained  at  that 
time  ;  that  is,  Greek  education.  In  Alexandria,  at  that  time 
the  very  center  of  the  world,  it  had  to  either  vanquish  the 
world  or  to  vanish.  In  the  Catechetical  school  in  Alexandria 
it  took  a  definite  form.  St.  Paul  had  made  a  beginning  as  a 
philosophical  apologete,  but  St.  Clements  was  a  far  superior 
champion  to  the  new  faith. 

It  is  unmistakably  true  that  in  the  early  days  the  Christian 
mind  was  inclined  to  demonstrate  in  the  order  of  this  universe 
and  from  the  beauty  of  nature  the  greatness  and  benevolence 
of  its  author.  Such  a  bent  of  the  mind  to  glorify  the  divinity 
through  the  description  of  its  works  created  a  taste  for  descrip- 
tions of  natural  scenery.  Some  beautiful  versions  are  found 
in  the  homilies  of  ecclesiastical  writers  in  the  time  of  Ter- 


I    HILOSOPHY  OF   DO!  ANY. 

tullian.      This   disposition   of   a   purely    emotional    chan 
might  have  in  time  of  social  quietude  assumed  a  prom 
to  the  inquiry  into  the  intellectual  causation  of  natural  phe- 
nomena and  reestablished  ilu   Aristotelian  methods. 

To  the  great  detriment   of  Christianity,  ultimately   to  the 
fate   of   humanity,    the   Christian    teachings    were    interv. 
with  accounts  of  miracles,  quite  unessential  as  to  the  validity 
of  the  precepts,  even  incompatible  with  the  dignity  of  the  Ma- 
ter in  the  consideration  of  the  enlightened  and  philosophicall) 
inclined.      More   than    any   other    weakness   of   human    nature 
did  the  forcible  burdening  of  the  consciences  with  unprovable 
tenets  extinguish  in  the  hearts  of  men  the  divine  love  and  for- 
bearance kindled  by  the  Master.      When   the   light    of   n 
is  put  out,  error  becomes  incorrigible  and  faith  turns  into  fa- 
naticism. 

The  fateful  disposition  of  the  human  mind  to  anticipate 
events  before  the  law  of  causation  is  comprehended  or  appre- 
ciated, invites  premature  speculation,  credulity,  superstition. 
Preferment  of  the  decisions  of  authority  in  the  present 
contradictory,  established  physical  laws  and  dictate-  of  plain 
reasoning  is  a  vicious  or  perverted  constitution  of  the  will,  the 
eternal  enemy  of  truth  and  science,  the  Pandora  box  of  his- 
tory, the  object  of  active  and  unrelenting  warfare,  and  will 
find  its  overthrow  through  the  improved  arms  and  methods  of 
the  natural  sciences. 

Should  a   continuous  progress  of  the   science-  only   be   de- 
picted, one  should  stop  with  the  era  ^\  the   Ptolemeans  and 
the  names  of   Dioscorides,   Archimedes,    Manetho,   and    Hip- 
parchus,  or  Euclid,  and  resume  again  the  thread  <^i  history  wit 
the  close  of  the  thirty-years'  war.  the  last  religious  war, 
the  treaty  of  peace  at   Schmalkalden   in  the  year   A.D     [648. 
This  was  the  first  international  pledge  for  parity  of  relif 
confessions. 

Such  a  psychological  condition   hovered  over  the   mysl 
brooding  minds  of  mankind  at  all  time-,  with  ever  l<  - 
by  reason   and   experience,   the    farther   back   we   reach   in   the 
annals  of   history:   fate   and   de-tune-  of   mortal-   a   play   ball 
thrown  about  in  the  heavenly  court-  for  the  amusement  ol 
the  gods.      Deeper  minds  only  recognized  tin    "  irrevocable  fa- 


204  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

turn  "  to  which  even  the  gods  had  to  bow.  That  all  events  in 
space  and  times  are  subject  to  unimpeachable  laws  was  not 
understood  at  all  or  very  imperfectly  comprehended.  Men 
had  an  estimate  of  the  ordinary  course  of  things  from  a  limited 
experience.  To  interrupt  or  to  set  aside  the  rules  of  govern- 
ment in  the  physical  and  ethical  world  was  held  to  be  an  undis- 
puted privilege  of  the  gods.  A  fear  of  this  power  invited  ven- 
eration and  worship.  A  breach  in  the  laws  of  nature  was  with 
them  an  incontrovertible  evidence  of  divine  power.  When 
the  silent  and  undesigned  beginnings  of  the  new  creed  in  sal- 
vation by  faith  crystallized  itself  around  the  person  of  the 
great  teacher,  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the  Redeemer,  the  legendary 
Orientalic  persuasion  was  largely  called  in  aid  for  the  accred- 
iting of  his  person,  and  was  accepted  as  an  essential  part  of 
the  first  apostolic  creed  and  catechism  as  composed  in  the 
Cathechetical  school  in  Alexandria,  where  also  the  first  ecclesi- 
astic or  episcopal  establishments  were  organized. 

The  study  of  the  historical  development  of  Christianity 
confirms  the  sad  experience  that  men  will  convert  into  disas- 
ter what  God  had  bestowed  upon  them  for  a  blessing,  and 
that  ambition  and  creed  will  seize  upon  religion  the  same  as 
they  do  likewise  upon  patriotism  and  every  other  noble  in- 
spiration. 

The  simple  teaching  of  pure  truth  had  been  estranged  from 
its  original  designs  long  before  Constantine  the  Great  had 
raised  it  to  the  dignity  of  the  religion  of  the  empire  through 
the  organization  of  the  hierarchy,  the  establishment  of  dog- 
matic systems,  and  the  parade  of  a  pompous  service,  mak- 
ing it  subservient  to  the  wants  of  government,  the  enter- 
tainment of  the  masses,  and  the  pride  of  the  nobility.  By 
these  methods  became  Christianity  completely  adapted  to  step 
into  the  place  of  the  old  pagan  religion,  and  Constantine  acted 
fully  in  conformity  with  the  spirit  of  his  age  when  he  accepted 
the  new  faith. 

These  events  were  absolutely  fatal  to  the  maintenance  of 
a  spirit  of  inquiry.  Wisdom  and  learning  degenerated,  espe- 
cially in  sequel  of  a  totally  changed  system  of  education  and 
instruction  by  conferring  the  care  and  supervision  over  the 
schools  upon  the  Christian  clergy,  in  opposition  to  the  rhetors 


Philosophy  of  BOTAm  . 

of  Athens,  Antiochia,  and  Ephesus,  who  still  maintained  the 

old  doctrines. 

The  plan  of  the  new  system  intended  to  discourage  individ- 
ual, independent  thought.     The  youth  was  to  be  brougl  I 

humility,  faithfulness,  and  "  laissez-faire  "  manners.     Men  of 
strength  of  character  and  self-reliance  were  considered  dan 

gerous to  the  hierarchy  and  its  dictates.  In  place  of  th<  | 
philosophers,  orators,  and  historians  of  the  old  time,  which 
had  formerly  served  as  manuals  of  instruction  to  the  stud 
the  holy  writs  of  the  Old  Testament  were  supplanted.  A  re- 
ligion which  was  originally  intended  for  the  awakening  of  pi- 
ous emotion/love,  and  justice,  and  which  was  well  preached  by 
the  untaught  apostles  and  their  followers,  was  converted  into 
a  collection  of  sophistical  subtleties,  and  attendance  to  dispu- 
tations and  partaking  in  ecclesiastic  ceremonies  formed  the 
prominent  entertainments  of  the  society  of  those  days. 

I    had   to   interrupt   the   chronologic   order   to    forestall    tin- 
events  under  whose  influence  the   Christian   clergy   acquired 
control  of  the  education  of  the  youth  in  the  Eastern  Empire  to 
bring  it  in  closer  connection  with  the  same  events  in  the  V 
ern  Empire. 

The   great   c'\\'\\   war,   the   contest    for   supremacy   beta 
Caesar  and  Pompejus,  had  ended  with  the  defeat  of  the 
in  the  battle  of  Pharsalus.   which   sealed   the  downfall  of  the 
Roman  republic,  the  occupation  of   Egypt   1  \    Cfesar,  tl 
sassination  of  the  dictator.     Then   followed   the  tragic  death 
of  Cleopatra,  the  last  heir  to  the   Ptolemean   throne;  the  in- 
corporation of  Egypt  into  the  Roman  Empire  under  a  Roman 
pnptor.     All    these    revolutions    exerted    but    little    influence 
upon  the  Alexandrian  schools.     At   the  time  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  the  Sceptics  and  Gnostics  shared  equal  au- 
thority.    Within  a  short  period  Christianity  had  mad 
many  conversions,  and  came  into  ascendency,  and  Alexandria 
became  one  of  the  three  rivaling  bishoprics,  the  othei   I 
ing  Constantinople  and    Rome. 

The  Christian  church  had  been  divided  in  regard  to  admin- 
istration and  tenets  from   the   very   beginning.     For  a  while 
tolerance  and  even   liberality  prevailed   toward   diffei 
opinion.     Not  until  the  council  ^>\   \ica-a  appeared  the  nam.- 


206  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

of  "  heretic  "  in  a  vindictive  sense,  and  an  equality  of  rights  of 
membership  was  observed  solely  upon  the  confession  of  the 
apostolic  creed.  The  first  act  of  grave  violence  was  com- 
mitted by  Theophilus, .bishop  of  Alexandria,  in  the  destruction 
of  the  Seraphim,  the  most  magnificent  structure  in  the  East, 
the  relic  of  the  statesmanship  of  Alexander's  captains,  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  ancient  cult  of  Egypt  and  free-think- 
ing Greece. 

From  this  period  on  there  was  no  longer  any  thought  of  sci- 
ence. The  sects  became  numerous,  their  contests  violent ;  the- 
ological discussions  ended  in  bloody  riots  and  wholesale  mur- 
ders. The  religious  sermons  delivered  in  the  churches  were 
accompanied  by  clapping  of  the  hands  and  shouting  of  the 
audience,  like  theatrical  performances. 

In  the  midst  of  raving  and  wrangling  of  sects  between 
Aryans,  Nestorians,  Monophysites,  Eutychians,  and  the  mu- 
tual anathematizing  of  rioting  powers  appeared  the  Khalifa 
Omar,  with  his  invincible  army,  who  entered  the  gates  of  the 
city,  burned  the  museum  and  great  library,  and  the  dark  cloud 
of  Moslem  fanaticism  henceforth  overshadowed  the  realm  of 
the  Pharaohs. 

The  appearance  of  Mohammed  and  the  promulgation  of  his 
religion  was  adverse  to  progress  in  science  and  philosophy  dur- 
ing the  first  ages  of  Islam.  This  impostor  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  keep  his  followers  as  ignorant  as  himself.  That  he 
might  at  ®nce  cut  off  impertinent  contradiction,  he  issued  an 
edict  which  made  the  study  of  liberal  sciences  and  arts  a  cap- 
ital offense.  At  the  same  time  to  captivate  the  imaginations 
of  his  ignorant  followers,  and  thereby  establish  his  authority, 
he  sent  forth  in  separate  portions  a  sacred  book,  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  the  Koran,  containing  the  doctrines  and  pre- 
cepts of  his  religion.  This  book,  which  was  chiefly  a  compila- 
tion, sufficiently  injudicious  and  incoherent,  from  the  books 
of  the  Nestorians,  the  Jews,  and  ancient  Arabic  superstitions, 
long  continued  the  only  object  of  study  among  the  Mohamme- 
dans. Their  reverence  for  this  holy  book,  the  leaves  of  which, 
they  were  taught  to  believe,  were  communicated  to  the  prophet 
by  an  angel  from  heaven,  long  superseded  every  philosophical 
and   literary  pursuit.      Imagining  that  the   Koran   contained 


Philosophy  01  Boi 

everything  necessary  or  useful  to  be  known,  what 
trary  to  its  dogmas  was  immediately  condemned  as  erroi 
and  whatever  was  not  found  in  this  sacred  volume 
missed  as  superfluous. 

After  the  extinction  of  the  <  Immiades,  who  trod   in! 
footsteps  of  Mohammed,  the  accession  of  the  famil) 
sides  to  the  Khalifat  opened  again  the  dawning  of  philos 
in  the  East. 

Of  all  the  ancient  peoples,  none  perhaps  were  less  incl 
to  materialistic  conceptions  than  the  Romans.     With  a 
gion    deeply    rooted    in    superstition    was    their    public    life 
wrapped  up  in  fanatical  bigotry.     Dominion  they  rated  .. 
wealth,   fame   above   welfare,   conquest   above-   all.     A    philo- 
sophical school  was  attempted  in  Rome  in  the  time  of  Cato. 
the  censor;  but  he,  fearing  that  philosophical  studies  w 
effeminate  the  spirit  of  the  young  men,  sternly  dismiss* 
Cato  himself  was  not  illiterate,  for  he  wrote  a  celebrated  trea- 
tise upon  agriculture,  and  was  acquainted  with  the   Pytl 
rean  tenets. 

Lucullus,  while  he  was  questor  in  Macedonia,  and  after- 
wards, when  he  had  the  conduct  of  the  Mithridatic  war.  had 
frequent  opportunities  to  converse  with  Grecian  philosophers, 
whence  he  acquired  such  a  relish  for  philosophical  studies 
that  afterwards,  returned  to  Rome,  he  made  a  large  collection 
of  valuable  books  and  erected  a  library,  with  galleries  and 
schools  adjoining.  This  place  became  the  daily  re-.»rt  for 
men  of  letters,  where  every  one  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  read 
ing  or  conversation,  as  best  suited  to  his  taste.  At  a  little 
later  period  M.  Terrentius  Varro  wrote  a  work  touching  Upon 
natural  history,  "  De  Re  Rustica  "  on  agriculture. 

In  the  year  B.C.   106  was  born    Marcus   Tulliua   Cicei 
Arpinum.     This  illustrious  Roman,  who  eclipsed  all  his 
temporaries  in  eloquence,  has  also  acquired  no  small  shai 
reputation    as   a   philosopher.     His   eventful    and    merit..- 
life  has  been  as  much  praised  and  admired  as  his  t- 
has  been  deplored  and  lamented.     He  addicted  himself  t<>  the 
principles  of  the  middle  academy,  a  branch  n\  tile  old  acad 
or  strictly  Platonic  school.      In  hi-  treatise,  "  I  »« 
rum  "—on  the  nature  of  the  gods— and  "Questiones  T 


208  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

lanae  " — Tusculan  researches — he  effected  a  complete  over- 
throw of  the  Olympian  gods,  exposing  the  unworthiness  of 
such  conceptions  of  divine  nature.  Of  his  philosophic  works, 
"  Hortensius,"  which  did  not  come  down  to  us,  the  celebrated 
ecclesiastic  writer,  Augustine,  confesses  that  the  study  of  this 
work  was  to  him  a  powerful  stimulus  to  the  pursuit  of  wisdom. 
Equally  aggressive  against  the  ancient  faith  is  the  didactic 
poem,  "  De  Rerum  Natura  " — on  the  nature  of  things — by 
Titus  Lucretius  Carus.  He  was  born  in  the  year  B.C.  99. 
Very  little  is  known  about  his  private  life,  which  he  seems  to 
have  passed  remote  from  the  tumults  of  the  civil  war.  He 
was  an  Epicurean,  and  his  great  poem,  which  he  dedicated  to 
his  friend,  the  poet  Memmius,  conferred,  more  than  any  other 
writing,  at  the  restoration  of  the  sciences  and  toward  the  re- 
vival, illustration,  and  rehabilitation  of  the  doctrines  of  Epi- 
curus. By  this  time  all  the  old  schools  of  Greek  philosophy 
were  well  represented  in  Rome,  and  we  see  that,  as  Alex- 
andria had  sapped  Athens,  thus  Rome  was  now  sapping  Alex- 
andria. Public  patronage  was  divided  between  the  Stoic  and 
Epicurean  tenets,  the  latter  becoming  prevalent  under  the 
rule  of  Augustus.  All  the  gay  and  mirthful  intellects  of  the 
poetical  circle  attached  to  the  person  of  Maecenas,  and  as- 
sembling at  the  jovial  Court  of  Augustus,  were  followers  of 
Epicurus.  According  to  Epicurus'  doctrine,  happiness  is  the 
highest  object  and  good  of  life.  This  happiness  was  referred 
to  the  soul  as  an  inseparable  element  of  the  body.  As  a  natu- 
ral consequence  of  this  opinion,  exploration  and  observation 
were  held  to  be  the  main  object  of  philosophy.  The  vitality 
of  the  scientific  germ  was  thus  preserved,  although  it  remained 
dormant  for  ages  to  come. 

The  Stoics  held  purity  of  morals,  self-control,  and  contempt 
of  sensual  pleasure  for  the  main  object  of  life.  In  the  times 
of  adversities  the  Stoics  proved  themselves  true  to  their  prin- 
ciples. When  under  the  reign  of  Tiberius  and  Nero,  every 
kind  of  abomination  was  practiced  openly,  and  every  enjoy- 
ment of  life  became  poisoned  with  fear  and  shame,  the  Epi- 
cureans retired.  The  Stoics  alone  fought  the  battle  against 
vice  and  oppression,  and  fell  victims  with  unshaken  fortitude, 
like  Seneca  and  hundreds  of  Christians. 


Philosophy  of  Botani  . 

Augustus  himself  was  a  patron  of  literature  and 
Many  persons  of  the  highest  distinction   in    Rome  were  tin- 
same  way  inclined,  and  during  his  reign  so  generally   pi 
lent  was  the  study  of  philosophy  that  almosl  ever  nan. 

lawyer,  and  man  of  letters  was  conversant  with  the  writings 
of  philosophers.     The  period  of  his  reign,  and  of  several  of  his 
successors,  was  distinguished  in  cultivated  taste  and  el 
manners,  going  down  to  posterity  as  the  Augustai  Thai 

taste  continued,  even  under  those  emperors  who  were  more 
addicted  to  pleasure  than  to  wisdom.      Ultimately,  in  tin-  • 
ess  of  time,   in   the   Christian   era   it    went    under   through    the 
interminable  theological  strifes,  and  that   monstrous  produc- 
tion of  monkish  ignorance,  the  Scholastic  philosophy. 

The    poetic    and    philosophic     work-     issuing    under    the 
Augustan   palladium,   entirely   lost   sight    of   the   progi 
because    inductive    procednre    of    Aristotelian    investigation, 
reverting    to    Platonic    and    Epicurean    sublimities, 
after  the  ideal,  obscure,  and  unknowable,  treating  with  con- 
temptuous neglect  those  obvious  realities  out  of  which 
generations  were  destined  to  construe  a   higher   civilization. 
Many   sublime   but   fruitless  conjectures   are   avowed    in    tin- 
classics  of  that  time.     Thus  Virgil,  in  the  fourth 
rives  the  origin  of  things,  after  the  Stoics,  from  a  divine  prin- 
ciple pervading  the  whole  mass  of  matter : 

His  quidam  signis  etque  haec  exempla  BecutI, 
Esse  apibus  partem  divinae  mentis,  et  haustus 
Aethereos  dixere:    Deum  namoue  Ire  per  omi 
Terresque,  tractusque  mans,  coelumque  profundum. 
Hinc  pecudes,  armenta.  viros.  genus  omne  f.-iaruin. 
Quemque  sibi  tenues  nascentem  arcessere  vitas. 
Scilicet  hue  reddi  deinde,  ac  resoluta,  referrl 
Omnia,  nee  morti  esse  lorum.  Bed  viva  volar.-. 
Sideris  in  nun.erum  atque  alto  Buccedere  coelo. 

_1\  .  < ..     ■ .  it. 

Led  by  such  wonders,  Bages  have  opined 
That  bees  have  a  portion  of  b  heavenly  mind; 
That  God  pervades,  and.  like  one  common  BOUl, 
Fills,  feeds,  and  animates  the  world  i  great  whole; 
That 'flocks,  herds,  beasts,  and  nun  from  hln 
Their  vital  breath;  in  him  all  move  and  live; 


"210  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

That  souls  discerpt  from  him  shall  never  die, 

But  back  resolved  to  God  and  heaven  shall  fly, 

And  live  forever  in  the  starry  sky.  — I.  Warton. 

In  another  place  the  poet  introduces  Anchyses  philosophiz- 
ing upon  the  same  principles  : 

Principio  coelum,  ac  terras,  camposque  liquentes 
Lucentemque  globum  lunae,  Titaniaque  astra, 
Spiritus  intus  alit,  totamque  infusa  per  artus 
Mens  agitat  molem,  et  magno  se  corpore  miscet. 

Aen.  VI.,  V.  724. 

Know  first  a  spirit  with  an  active  flame 

Pervades  and  animates  the  mighty  frame. 

Runs  through  the  watery  worlds,  the  fields  of  air, 

The  pondrous  earth,  the  depths  of  heaven,  and  there 

Glows  in  the  sun  and  moon,  and  burns  in  every  star. 

'Thus  mingling  with  the  mass,  the  general  soul 

Lives  in  the  parts  and  agitates  the  whole.  — Pitt. 

In  another  beautiful  verse  he  gives  utterance  to  the  Stoical 
mood,  in  honor  of  Lucretius: 

Felix  qui  potuit  rerum  cognoscere  causas 
Atque  metus  omnes  et  irrevocabile  fatum 
Subjecit  pedibus,  strepitumque  Acherontis  avari! 

— Georg.  II.,  v.  v.  490. 

Happy  the  man  whose  vigorous  soul  can  pierce 

Through  the  formation  of  this  universe, 

Who  nobly  dares  despise,  with  a  soul  sedate, 

The  din  of  Acheron  and  vulgar  fears  and  fate.    — I.  Warton. 

Of  the  three  greatest  poets  of  this  era,  Virgil  alone,  in  his 
""  Georgica,"  occupies  himself  with  the  processes  of  organic 
nature.  Ovid,  in  his  "  Metamorphoses,"  in  the  touching  idyl, 
"  Philemon  and  Baucis,"  expresses  the  belief  of  the  ancients 
about  the  divine  government  of  the  world,  as  subject  to  the 
unrestrained  discretion  or  pleasure  of  the  gods  in  exact  oppo- 
sition to  the  modern  idea  of  causation : 

Immense  est  finemoue  potentia  coeli 

Non  habet,  et  quidquid  superi  voluere  peract  est. 

Immense  and  unlimited  is  the  power  of  the  gods; 
And  whatever  be  their  wishes,  perfected  it  is. 


Philosophy  of  Botany,  -l  i 

Agriculture  was  the  only  one  of  the  exact  sciences  which  the 
Romans  cultivated  with  fondness  and  success.     Since  an 
times  it  had  been  well  attended  to  in  Italy  and  Sicily.     I 
the  Older  had  excelled  as  an  agricultural  author.     Columella, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  Nero,  spent  his  literary  talent  for  the 
revival  of  love  of  husbandry;  Terentius  Varro  laid  down  the 
rules  for  pruning  grapevines;  Cornelius  Celsus  flourished 
celebrated  physician  and  botanist. 

The  influence  of  nature  upon  the  intellectual   life   of  man 
seems  to  have  been  first  conceived  by  Plinius  the  (  Mder,  who, 
stimulated  by  this  idea,  resolved  to  compose  a  work   which 
should  give  an  account  of  all  objects  of  nature  which  had  here- 
tofore become  known.     This  remarkable  man  enjoyed  th< 
teem  and  friendship  of  Trajan,  to  whom  he  was  an  advisor  in 
affairs    of    State.     He    gave    his    work    the    title:    "  Historia 
Naturalis."     As    it    is    not    strictly    systematic    it    should    be 
called  an   Encyclopedia.     Such  works  issue  now  from 
ciations  only  of  scientists,  but  Plinius  undertook  the 
task  upon  his  personal  erudition  and  resources,  extracted  from 
the  works  of  not  less  than  2,500  publications  of  precedin 
contemporaneous  authors.     In  style  and  depth  of  research,  it 
is  vastly  inferior  to  the  Aristotelian  work,  which   it   was  in- 
tended to  supersede.     The  Grecian  being  equally  great  in  in- 
venting    and     observing,     comparing     all     things     critically, 
thoughtfully    penetrating,    giving    new    forms;    the    Roman, 
collecting  with  indefatigable  zeal   and  industry,   but   void   of 
individual  judgment  and  personal  observation,  neither  a  critic 
nor  a  specialist.     The  botanical  part  of  the  book  is  tin- 
conducted  because  he  took  Dioscorides  for  his  guide. 

The  work  happily  escaped  the  ravages  of  the  times,  and  be- 
came for  the  Middle  Ages  the  foundation  For  the  stud)  of  tin- 
natural  sciences.  In  behalf  of  the  service  it  rendered  to  the 
contemporaries  it  is  entitled  to  the  credit  to  have,  by  methodic 
exposition,  raised  natural  science  to  the  dignity  of  philosophy. 

Taking  up  again  the  thread  of  history  in  Africa,  we  are  trans- 
lated to  a  period  when  the  Christian  religion  had  mad.-  | 
progress.     A    thorough    ecclesiastic    organization    with    9 
bishoprics  represented  the  secular  power  and  dignity  of  the 
church. 


212  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

Here  we  meet  the  ever  memorable  personage  of  Augustinus, 
the  Bishop  of  Hippo.  He  was  born  at  Tagaste,  in  Africa, 
A.D.  354;  studied  philosophy  at  Carthage  and  afterwards  in 
Rome.  Inclined  to  dissipation  in  his  youth,  he  took  on  an  ac- 
tive change  of  his  mind  after  he  had  become  conversant  with 
the  writings  of  Cicero.  They  had  improved  his  taste  and  in- 
spired him  with  an  ardent  love  for  wisdom.  Not  meeting 
with  the  satisfaction  he  expected  from  the  Greek  and  Roman 
writers,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the  holy  Scriptures. 
While  in  Rome  he  undertook  the  profession  of  rhetoric. 
From  this  engagement  and  his  skeptical  turn  he  became  in- 
volved in  irksome  controversies,  to  evade  which  he  moved  to 
Milan.  While  there,  and  before  his  return  to  his  native  land, 
to  accept  the  Bishopric  of  Hippo,  he  gained  the  friendship  of 
Ambrosius,  Bishop  of  Milan,  a  Christian  teacher  of  great  elo- 
quence and  probity.  In  his  works  he  shows  great  attach- 
ment to  the  Platonic  system,  and  in  one  chapter  of  the  book. 
"  De  Civitate  Dei,"  (The  City  of  God),  he  treats  natural  the- 
ology in  the  manner  of  Plato.  He  is  inclined  to  think  that 
all  objects,  besides  animals,  are  in  some  way  endowed  with 
souls,  and  advances  the  idea  of  a  possible  spontaneous  gener- 
ation, as  he  could  not  otherwise  explain  the  existence  of  ani- 
mal life  upon  oceanic  islands,  far  removed  from  the  continents. 
He  proposed  that  from  the  beginning  of  the  world  two  kinds 
of  seeds  of  the  living  beings  had  existed :  one,  the  visible, 
which  the  Creator  had  implanted  in  animals  and  plants ;  that 
each,  after  his  own  manner,  should  propagate  itself ;  the  other, 
an  invisible  one,  which  lies  latent  in  all  elements,  and  becomes 
active  only  by  particular  proportions  of  mixture  of  matter  and 
degrees  of  temperature.  This  seed,  lying  latent  in  the  ele- 
ments, since  primordial  times,  he  thought  would  produce 
plants  and  animals  in  great  multitudes  without  the  coopera- 
tion of  preexisting  organisms.  He  did  not  controvert  the 
privilege  of  explaining  a  natural  process  in  an  intelligible  way. 
The  orthodoxy  of  the  present  day  would  not  allow  him  to 
raise  such  a  conflict  with  the  Mosaic  narration.  He  is  the 
most  learned,  and  permanently,  the  most  influential  of  the  an- 
cient fathers  of  the  church.  His  firm  belief  in  the  reality  of 
miracles,  his  definite  declaration  that  he  would  prefer  a  mira- 


Philosophy  01  Botany. 

cle  to  logical  proof  in  an  argument,  has  been,  on  account  of  his 
authority  with  the  faithful,  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  scientific 

investigations  of  the  truth.  His  writings  mark  the  turning 
point  in  the  transformation  of  the  classical  philosophical  style 
into  the  mystic  theologic  dogmas  and  hierarchic  aspirations 
of  the  fifth  century.  The  minds  of  the  people  in  the  Western 
Empire,  as  well  as  in  the  Eastern  Empire,  had  become 
erally  and  so  profoundly  occupied  with  metaphysical  mys- 
ticism, and  depraved  through  the  fearful  social  corruption  re- 
sulting from  it,  that  the  love  of  knowledge  fell  into  disn 
and  repudiation,  and  was  declared  nefarious. 

Augustinus  died  during  the  siege,  and  only  two  days  b< 
the  storming  of  Hippo  by  the  Vandals,  in  the  year  430. 

The  Vandals,  a  half-breed  of  Germanic  and  Sarmatic  blood, 
had,  during  the  migration  of  the  nations,  overrun  Spain,  and 
invaded  from  there  the  Roman  province  of  Africa.  (  »f  all  the 
Germanic  tribes  they  were  the   most   cruel    and  and 

their  character  had  been  little,  or  not  at  all.  improved  with 
their  adoption  of  the  Christian  faith.  Tn  420  they  bad  cr< 
the  straits  of  Gibraltar  under  their  leader.  I  reiserich.  After  a 
fearful  despoliation,  lasting  about  one  hundred  years,  their 
dominion  came  to  an  end  through  an  annihilating  d< 
which  they  sustained  at  the  hand  of  Belizarius,  whom  Km- 
peror  Justinian  had  intrusted  with  the  command  of  a  large 
army.  Africa  was  now  annexed  to  the  Byzantine  empire,  un- 
til fate  soon  again  delivered  it  into  other  hands. 

In  the  preceding  chapters  We  left  Alexandria  silenced  by  the 
scymetar,  and  dismantled,  and  thus  tin-  patriarchate  of  that 
city  ceased  to  have  any  further  political  influence  in  the  (  hris- 
tian  system.  In  little  more  than  one  generation  the  whole  "t 
Northern  Africa  was  converted  and  speaking  Arabic. 

With  the  rapidity  of  a  storm  advanced  the  fore  "nar. 

After  Syria,  Jerusalem,  and  Egypt  had  fallen  int..  his  hands  In- 
determined   to  advance   upon   the    Roman   province  of    \tt 
His  successor,  Khalifa  Abd-Almalik.  completed  the  conquesl 
intrusting  his  tried  general.   Emir   Musa,   with   the  onA:- 
the  campaign.     Musa  completely  subjugated  the   Barbers  and 
retired  to  the  capital  of  his  own  province,  Kairawan,  trans 


214  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

ferring  the  command  in  the  extreme  west  upon  the  trusted 
general,  Tarik. 

Having  completed  the  conquest  of  the  entire  East,  from  the 
Ganges  to  the  Nile,  and  now  of  Africa,  the  Moslems,  now 
known  under  the  name  of  Saracens,  bethought  themselves  to 
invade  and  convert  to  the  Islam  the  reign  of  the  Visigoths  in 
Spain. 

The  Khalifs  had  abandoned,  ere  this,  the  evil  policy  of 
opposing  science.  They  very  soon  became  distinguished 
patrons  of  learning.  It  became  customary  for  the  first  digni- 
taries of  State  to  be  held  by  men  distinguished  for  their  erudi- 
tion. Under  the  Khalifs  of  Bagdad  this  principle  was  thor- 
oughly carried  out.  The  cultivators  of  mathematics,  astron- 
omy, medicine,  and  general  literature  abounded  in  the  court 
of  Almansor,  who  invited  all  philosophers,  offering  them  his 
protection,  whatever  their  religious  opinion  might  be.  His 
successor,  Al-Rashid,  issued  an  edict  that  no  mosque  should  be 
built  unless  there  was  a  school  attached  to  it.  The  schools  of 
Alexandria  flourished  again  under  complete  religious  equality. 

After  the  fall  of  Ceuta,  the  Visigothic  outpost  in  Africa, 
Tarik  crossed  the  straits  and  took  a  fortified  position  with  his 
army  on  a  mountain,  afterwards  named  after  him,  Gabel  al 
Tarik,  Gibraltar. 

After  the  decisive  victory  in  the  battle  of  Xerres  de  la 
Fontera,  won  by  Musa,  over  the  king  of  Goths,  Roderic,  who 
in  this  calamity  lost  his  life,  the  conquerors  lost  no  time  in 
occupying  the  entire  peninsula.     • 

Onlv  the  northern  mountainous  provinces  of  Gallicia. 
Asturia,  and  Biscaya,  maintained  their  independence.  The 
Gothic  princely  families  had  retreated  into  inaccessible 
mountain  fastnesses.  Unapproachable  in  front,  they  were  se- 
cure in  their  rear,  as  they  stood  in  friendly  relations  to  the 
neighboring  Franks.  From  this  asylum  grew  forth,  at  a  later 
period,  a  new  Christian  Spanish  empire.  Spain  was  now  a 
part  of  the  great  Moslem  empire,  whose  Khalifs  resided  in 
Bagdad,  and  later  in  Damascus.  The  provinces  were  gov- 
erned by  Satraps,  appointed  by  the  Khalifs,  with  the  title  of 
Emirs. 

The   absolute  freedom   granted  to   all   professions  brought 


Philosophy  ot  Bo 


I  A  \  Y 


about  in  a  very  short  time  a  conflux  of  enterprising  people  and 

rapid  growth  of  industries,  trade,  and  science.  After  the  lapse 
of  two  hundred  years,  during  the  reign  of  Abd-Errahman  III. 
(912-961),  Spain  had  become  the  most  prosperous  empire, 
with  a  population  of  30,000,000,  emulating  Rome  in  tin-  Au- 
gustan time.  Abd-Errahman  was  the  first  Spanish  (  tmajade 
who  declared  himself  independent  from  the  (  Oriental  Khalifat. 
From  authentic  documents  we  are  informed  that  then 
seventy  large  libraries  and  seventeen  great  schools,  provided 
with  liberal  endowments,  elegantly  furnished  in  palatial  build- 
ings. Students  from  distant  Anglia,  Germany,  and  France 
flocked  to  the  celebrated  universities  of  Cordova,  which  num- 
bered one  million  inhabitants;  to  Toledo.  Granada,  and  Sevilla 
to  listen  to  the  lectures  of  Averrhoes.  of  Cordova,  the  chief 
commentator  of  Aristotle;  Albucasis,  the  surgeon;  Alha/.en, 
the  astronomer,  who  discovered  the  refraction  of  the  atmos- 
phere; Almaimon,  who  determined  with  nearly  complete 
curacy  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic;  Ben  Musa,  who  intro- 
duced the  Indian  numerals  and  invented  the  common  method 
of  solving  the  quadratic  equations.  The  works  of  Aristotle, 
Theophrastus,  and  Dioscorides  were  translated  and  taught  in 
the  schools. 

Alhazen  was  the  first  to  correct  the  Greek  misconception  as 
to  the  nature  of  vision;  determined  the  retina  as  the  seal  of 
sight,  and  showed  that  the  impression  was  carried  by  the  optic 
nerve  to  the  brains.  Many  instances  in  physio  are  not  better 
explained  nowadays  than  they  were  by  him.  The  materia 
medica  was  expounded  in  well-arranged  pharmacopoeias.  No 
branch  of  art  or  science  known  at  this  period  was  neglected. 
and  advancement  loomed  up  in  the  theoretical  field  as  well  as 
the  practical.  This  effulgent  radiancy,  however,  found  it> 
counterpoint  in  the  dark  shadow  of  extravagant  luxury,  etfem 
inating  sensuality  weakening  the  national  valor.  Wisdom 
and  mental  acumen  sunk  to  scholastic  flippery;  fatuous 
ulations  and  that  trifling  witticism  to  which  the  Arab,  by 
national  propensity  and  a  spirit  of  language,  is  much  add 
and  which  found  abundant  fuel  in  the  now  prevailing  religious 
discussions. 

The  eastern  Khalifat  had  already  fallen  into  a  tottering  atti- 


216  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

tude  through  the  division  into  the  sects  of  Sonnites  and 
Shiites,  which  had  been  formed  into  violent  political  factions. 
The  Spanish  Khalifs  had  been  repeatedly  overtaken  by  serious 
disasters  by  their  attempt  to  spread  the  Islam  across  the 
Pyrenees.  Their  defeat  at  Tour  by  the  united  forces  of  the 
Franks,  under  Karl  Martell,  terminated  forever  their  advance 
northward  (October,  732). 

The  Goths,  who  had  preserved  their  ancient  valor,  now  de- 
scended from  their  mountain  fastnesses,  harassing-  the  heredi- 
tary foe  with  unceasing  raids,  taking  advantage  of  the  internal 
feuds  in  the  disorganized  and  weakened  Sarcen  dominions 
One  by  one  fell  the  open  or  fortified  cities  into  the  hands  of  the 
kings  of  Castile  and  Aragone,  who  gave  the  defeated  the  choice 
to  either  submit  to  forced  conversion  or  to  be  burned  at  the 
stake,  by  order  of  the  Holy  Inquisition. 

In  place  of  the  toleration  and  equal  rights  before  the  law 
for  all  nationalities  and  confessions  granted  three  hundred 
years  ago  by  the  conquering  Saracens,  the  Spaniard  now  in- 
stitutes the  Inquisition,  and  as  we  will  hereafter  see,  becomes, 
at  a  later  day,  the  merciless  despoiler  and  executioner  of  two 
other  civilizations  in  the  newly  discovered  Western  Hem- 
isphere. It  is  meet  here  to  speak  of  this  hellish  institution, 
which  more  than  any  other  wickedness  obstructed  progress 
and  overwhelmed  the  best  of  men  for  their  devotion  to  reason 
and  truth  with  ruin  or  cruel  death.  The  device  originated  in 
the  plan  to  increase  to  an  unlimited  extent  the  power  and 
wealth  of  the  church  and  its  adherents.  A  papal  bull,  issued 
under  papal  seal  by  Pope  Innocence  III.,  Anno  1193,  gives  to 
Peter  of  Castelnan  instructions  to  summon  before  a  tribunal, 
called  "  The  Holy  Inquisition,"  all  persons  accused  of  hold- 
ing or  divulging  heretical  doctrines  or  opinions  not  in  con- 
formity with  the  doctrines  of  the  orthodox  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  with  unrestricted  jurisdiction. 

This  mandate  of  the  Holy  Father  was  so  successfully  car- 
ried into  eli'ect  that  in  Madrid  alone — other  places  also  desig- 
nated for  the  execution  not  included — within  three  hundred 
years,  as  attested  by  documentary  history,  300,000  persons 
were  cremated  at  the  stake  for  religious  opinion's  sake.    These 


Philosophy  of  Botany.  811 

public   executions  were  great    festivals   for  this   noble   n; 
and  were  called  "Auto  da  fe  " — act  of  faith. 

Under  the  pressure  of  this  fearful  hierarchical  dei 
tion  originated  the  frantic  efforts  for  the  conquest  of  the  holy 
land.  With  the  sacrifice  of  millions  of  lives  a  momentar) 
success  had  been  purchased,  to  end  directl)  in  a  con 
tire.  The  progress  of  the  fourth  crusade  gives  a  vivid  picture 
of  the  state  of  barbarism  in  the  Western  States,  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  Roman  Church  at  that  time.  The  campaign  was 
ostensibly  planned  by  Pope  [nnocence  IV..  but  afterwards  in- 
sidiously diverted  through  the  connivance  of  the  Venetian 
Republic,  and  the  Roman  curia  against  Constantinople,  tin- 
seat  of  the  Eastern  Church,  and  the  rival  Byzantine  Bishop  or 
Patriarch. 

The  superior  physical  strength  of  only  20,000  attacking 
Franks  overwhelmed  a  city  which  at  that  time  had  yet  4<x).ooo 
inhabitants.  Few  lives  only  were  lost  by  the  combatants,  but 
the  greatest  part  of  the  city  was  laid  in  ashes,  and  many  1  »f  tin- 
inhabitants  afterwards  slain  or  brutally  mistreated,  and  the 
devastation  and  ruin  from  the  treatment  of  their  Chris 
combatants  (1204)  was  in  no  degree  less  severe  than  what 
happened  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  later,  after  the  ultimate 
downfall  of  the  Byzantine  empire  and  sack  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Turks. 

Rome  had  accomplished  its  design.  The  Bishops  of  Rome 
at  last  appointed  the  Bishop  of  Constantinople.  The  acknowl- 
edgment of  papal  supremacy  was  complete.  The  holy  relics 
were  carried  away  to  raise  to  greater  holiness  the  cathedrals 
0$  the  Western  barbarians. 

An  inventory  of  the  spoils  carried  away  by   Abbott    Mart 
for  his  monastery  in  Elsace  illustrates  the  low  moral  char; 
and  superstition  of  .the  Christian  world  at  that  period.      It  en 
merates  the  following  priceless   article-:      in     \    Spot 
blood  of  our  Savior.  (J)  a  piece  of  the  true  cross, 
of  the  apostle  James,    (4)   part   of  the  skeleton  of  Join 
Baptist,  and    (5)   a  bottle  of  the  milk  ^i  the  mother  ^i  God 
Works  of  art  in  precious  metal-  or  bronze   were  melted 
coin  and  thousands  of  manuscripts  were  burned,      It 
time  the  works  of  many  ancient  authors  disappeared  I 


218  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

Before  bringing  to  a  conclusion  the  history  of  the  gradual 
collapse  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  and  its  extinction  through 
the  second  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  Asiatic  barbarians, 
it  will  be  well  to  recall  the  principal  data  of  the  fate  of  the 
Western  empire,  and  what  little  there  can  be  said  about  the 
intellectual  state  in  that  time. 

Constantine  the  Great  had  on  his  deathbed,  A.D.  33,  divid- 
ed the  empire  into  two  halves  between  his  sons.  Byzantium 
had  already  put  on  the  name  of  New  Rome,  City  of  Constan- 
tine ;  finally,  Constantinople  ;  and  had  taken  on  customs  and 
manners  of  Oriental  character,  having  little  semblance  to 
Roman  habits  ;  Oriental  servility  and  sycophancy  the  tone  of 
court  life. 

After  Emperor  Justinian  had  reconquered  Africa  from  the 
Vandals  he  turned  his  forces  against  the  Goths,  who  held 
Italy, where  his  general,  Belizarius,  captured  Rome,  December, 
556.  The  operation  closed  with  the  surrender  of  Ravenna, 
493.  Under  the  reign  of  the  Ostro-Gothic  king,  Theodoric, 
two  remarkable  men  were  his  ministers,  Boetius,  the  philoso- 
pher, and  Cassiodorus,  the  theologian.  The  latter,  being 
completely  imbued  with  the  doctrines  and  principles  of 
Augustinus,  the  Bishop  of  Hippo,  introduced  an  educational 
system  which  totally  ignored  the  classical  philosophical  style 
of  teaching.  Heaven,  he  says,  is  to  be  the  terminus  of  man's 
earthly  wanderings ;  abandonment  of  worldly  interests,  and 
the  surrender  of  personal  convictions  to  the  doctrines  and 
commandments  of  the  church,  the  sure  path  to  his  supreme 
blessing.  The  schools  were  graded  into  two  courses:  the 
Trivium,  or  lower  class,  instructed  in  grammar,  rhetoric,  and 
dialectic ;  the  upper  course,  or  Quadrivium,  was  occupied  with 
the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  and  music. 
He  pays  some  tribute  to  the  natural  sciences  only  in  aid  to 
agriculture  and  horticulture,  but  omits  them  altogether  in  the 
course  of  education. 

This  system  remained  in  vogue  under  the  monastic  rule 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  Unremitting  scholastic  and 
sophistic  strife  about  theological  whims  and  trifles,  bloody 
contests,  and  cruel  persecutions  for  opinion's  sake,  fill  hence- 
forth, under  the  unbroken  dominion  of  the  church,  the  annals 


Philosophy  oi   Botaky. 

of  the  Western  church,  until  the  violent  strue 
mation   admitted   some   rays   of   spiritual    freedom, 
asunder  the  dark  clouds  of  intellectual  subju 
ing  once  more  and  bringing  to  lift-  the  blasted  fields. 

In  a  period  when  religious  systems  had  losl  all  ethical  - 
tioning,  when  all  sciences  and  civil  order  had  been  dro 
in  blood,  when  fratricide,  poisoning,  and   assassination 
the  regular  methods  and  instruments  of  governments,   hier- 
archy and   a  faith  without  intellect   must    necessaril 
vene,  can  even  be  beneficial  to  maintain  some  kind  of  coh< 
of  society,  until  unforeseen  events  cooperate  to  bring  about  a 
new  era;  but  if  the  hierarchical  state  becomes  perman< 
a  system  is  sure  to  fall  into  degeneracv. 

The  student  of  history  turns  over  many  a  page  with  a  shud 
der  and  a  sigh.     None  are  more  painful  and  distressing  than 
the  ones  now  passing  before  him,  when  darkness 
plete  and  general  without  the  glimmer  of  one  single  star  to 
point  out  an  opening  or  rent  in  the  overcast  clouds. 

History  becomes  then  only  interesting,  instructing,  and 
cinating  when  there  is  progress.     To  give  a  pleasing  account 
of  the  Byzantine,  Turkish,  or  Chinese  history  would 
distract  the  ingenuity  of  a  Thucydides. 

A  wandering  tribe  of  Asiatic  nomads  had  adopted  the  I 
of  Mohammed.     A  branch  of  them,  the  Seldshuk  Turks,  had.  a 
century  asro,  overthrown  the  Persian  Empire.     After  this  they 
defeated  the  Greeks  and  drove  them  out  of  Asia  Minor, 
those  successes  they  designed  the  conquest  of  the   Byzantine 
Empire.     Their  Sultan.  Soliman,  had  crossed  the   Hellespont, 
captured  and  fortified   Gallipoli.  thus   securing  a   Footli 
Europe,  and  a  base  for  future  operations.     From  this  tii: 
the  tottering  empire  lay  in  an  agony.      It-  doom  was  apparc 

The  emperor,  John  Pakvologus.  went  to   Rome,  pi 
himself  at  the  feet  of  Urban  V.,  tin-  Roman  pontiff,  renounced 
his  heresy  respecting  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  poi 
the  double  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  kissing  th< 
of  the  Holy  Father,  besieged  him  for  help.      The  sue 
Constantine  the  Great  had  given   up  his   religion,  hut    ! 
ceived  no  equivalent  reward.     The  pontificate  had  no  p 


2^0  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

of  his  own,  and  could  not  or  would  not  influence  the  western  or 
northern  powers  to  take  up  the  defense  of  a  sinking  empire. 

At  last  the  inevitable  asserted  itself.  On  May  29,  1453,  the 
assault  was  delivered.  Constantine  Palreologus,  the  last  of 
the  Roman  emperors,  fell,  as  it  became  a  Roman  emperor,  in 
the  ditch.  With  his  death  resistance  ceased,  and  the  victori- 
ous Turk  rushed  into  the  city,  whose  citizens  to  the  last  mo- 
ment expected  that  an  angel  of  the  Lord,  with  a  sword  in  his 
hand,  would  descend  from  heaven  and  save  the  city  of  the 
Lord. 

There  was  no  longer  any  need  for  reconciliation  between 
Latin  and  Greek  Christianity — the  sword  of  Mohammed  had 
settled  their  dispute. 

Soliman  the  Magnificent  was  ruler  over  all  Macedonia, 
took  Belgerad  in  1520,  and  beleaguered  Vienna  in  1529,  but 
the  German  valor  stayed  his  advance. 

These  events  may  be  considered  as  the  tragic  end  of  an  age 
bound  in  its  conception  on  false  logic,  and  ill  conceived  faith 
in  wonders  and  ecclesiastic  infallibility. 

Encouraged  by  the  success  of  three  commercial  enterprises, 
the  revival  of  art  and  letters  in  Italy,  a  spirit  of  critical  thought 
emerges. 

Within  a  short  space  of  time  the  true  configuration  of  the 
earth  was  definitely  demonstrated  by  the  three  great  voyages, 
the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus,  the  doubling  of  the 
cape  by  Vasco  de  Gamma,  and  the  Magellan  circumnaviga- 
tion of  the  earth.  Progress  came  again,  gradual,  but  assured 
of  continuance,  when  the  spirit  of  a  new  era  first  dawned  in 
Italy  in  the  fourteenth  century.  To  Dante,  Petrarca,  and 
Bocaccio,  Europe  not  only  owes  the  creation  of  a  new  modern 
national  literature,  but  also  the  revival  of  classical  studies,  of 
Greek  and  Roman  letters. 

During  the  fifteenth  century  arise  again  from  their  lethargy 
arts  and  sciences  in  Italy,  one  by  one,  and  toward  the  end  of  it 
botany  too  attains  a  resurrection.  John  Argyropolus,  a  noble 
Byzantine,  who  arrived  in  Italy  a  refugee,  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  his  home  by  the  Turks,  and  having  lost  all  but  his  lib- 
erty and  learning,  by  papal  order  translated  the  writings  of 
Theophrastus    from    the    Greek    into    Latin.     The    works    of 


Philosophy  of  I  !<»i  .w  \ .  22 1 

Dioscorides  and  Plinius  were  brought  up  from  the  du 

livion  and  put  in  circulation  among  the  literary  world  by  tin- 
aid  of  the  recently  discovered  art  of  printing. 

Soon  it  becomes  evident  that  to  understand  the  botai 
books  the  knowledge  of  the  ancient  languages  alone  was  not 

sufficient,  and  that  one  had  to  be  conversant  with  tin-  obj 

themselves  which  were  treated  of  in  these  writings.     Now,  at 

last,  turned  the  scholars  of  Italy   (which  in  ever) 

art  was  far  in  advance  of  the  rest  of  Europe  I  witli  grei 

to  the  observation  of  nature,  that  they  might   find   the  plant  - 

with  which  the  ancients  were  occupied. 

Reuchlin   and  Erasmus  had,  meantime,  north   of  the   Alp-. 
kindled   the  torch  of  classical   learning,   which    was    soon   to 
blaze   up  into  the  purifying  flame  of  the   reformation.     The 
movement  soon  extended  to  the   Netherlands,  and  over 
many.     The  most  prominent,  indeed,  of  the  father-  of  botany 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  who,  in  careful  observation  and  de- 
scription of  the  native  plants,  rank  foremost,  had  their  homes 
in    that   memorable   corner,   the   southwestern    plain,   thr 
which  flows  the  upper  course  of  the  Rhine,  where  also  stands 
the  cradle  of  the  art  of  printing,  and  where  a  lively  intero 
was    cultivated    between    the    ancient    towns    of    Frankfurt 
Mainz,  and  Strassburg. 

Botany,  however,  as  cultivated  by  these  men  was  not  tin- 
free  and  independent  science  of  Aristotle.  It  was  once-  for  all 
the  helpmate  of  philosophy  and  medicine,  for  tin-  only  problem 
which  they  tried  to  solve  was  to  find  again  the  plant-  of  which 
Theophrastus,  Plinius.  and  Dioscorides  had  spoken,  and  to 
discover  the  virtues  which,  according  to  ancient  suo 
are  thought  to  be  inherent  in  every  plant,  either  beneficial  or 
injurious  to  man.  Nevertheless  the  morning  had  dawned,  tin- 
day  grew  lighter,  and  the  scientific  thought,  which  had  been 
captive  in  the  gloomy  monasteries  during  medieval  times, 
moved  about  again  amongst  thinking  people,  in  the  ..per. 
light. 

Since  that  time  botany  continued,  uninterruptedly,  to  de 
velop,  although  the  solution  of  the  problems  with   t 
was  occupied   were,   at   different    time-,   diversely    attempted. 


222  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

for,  as  Goethe  remarks:  "  The  further  that  knowledge  extends, 
the  more  questions  come  in  evidence." 

The  fathers  of  the  modern  botany  held  the  naive  opinion  that 
the  plants  of  Greece  and  Anatolia  could  all  be  found  in  their 
northern  fields  and  forests.  Yet,  a  closer  search  of  their  re- 
gions soon  cleared  up  this  mistake,  and  when  in  that  period  of 
the  great  geographical  discoveries  the  newly  acquired  terri- 
tories were  explored,  it  became  manifest  "  how  unequally  is 
woven  the  carpet  with  which  vegetation  clothes  the  naked 
earth,"  and  that  there  were  vastly  more  plants  than  what  were 
known  to  Plinius  and  Dioscorides.  The  number  of  plants  rec- 
ognized as  distinguished  kinds  increased  so  rapidly  that  even 
the  most  favored  memory  could  not  encompass  all.  The  old 
names  were  not  sufficient,  and  new  ones  had  to  be  invented. 
Authors  strove  to  make  the  descriptions  as  plain  as  possible, 
and  the  illustrations  were,  after  the  early  example  of  the 
Greeks,  inserted  into  the  text,  as  true  to  nature  as  the 
newly  invented  art  of  wood  engraving  could  accomplish. 
Soon  the  necessity  of  an  orderly  arrangement  to  facilitate 
identification  became  imperative.  Such  a  repertory  is  called 
a  system,  and  from  that  time  it  appeared  to  be  the  principal 
problem  of  botany  to  find  a  system  by  the  aid  of  which  a  sur- 
vey of  the  vegetable  kingdom  would  be  rendered  easy,  and  the 
proper  name  of  an  unknown  plant  be  found  with  the  least 
effort. 

Not  before  the  middle  of  the  last  century  appeared  that 
analytic  mind  who  would  teach  men  to  find  the  way  through 
the  immeasurable  plenitude  of  plants,  and  likewise  animals — 
Linn£,  who,  far  ahead  of  his  time,  gifted  with  eminent  power 
of  conception,  grasped  and  perfected  a  perspicuous  plan  of 
arranging  all  terrestrial  objects  into  classes,  orders,  genera, 
and  species.  He  carried  botanists  through  a  severe  but 
wholesome  schooling,  training  them  to  fix  their  eyes  upon 
plants  attentively,  to  dissect  and  compare  them.  He  is  like- 
wise the  author  of  an  admirable  scientific  language  (terminol- 
ogy), which  provides  for  every  difference  of  plant  form  an  ex- 
act and  intelligible  term. 

In  that  way  more  than  in  any  other,  Linn£  excelled  his 
predecessors,  when  he  perceived  that  the  utility  of  a  system 


PlULOSOPH?   OF   Boi  any. 

of  plants  would  reach  beyond   its  practical   usefulm 
desired  to  establish  still  another  system,  which  would  group 
together  those   plants   which   resemble   another   the   mo! 
which  are,  as  he  explained  himself,  the  n<  lated, 

a  system  he  declared  to  be  the  natural  system,  and  in- 
struction of  such  a  one  the  highest   and  ultimate  problt 
botany.     But  the  time  and  means  for  it-  accomplishm 
not  at  Limit's  disposition.     It  was  reserved  for  a  more  genial 
clime,  and  a  people  endowed  with  taste  in  horticulture,  I 
velop  this  idea. 

Bernard  Jussieu,  then  director  of  the  Jardine  des  Plant 
Paris,  had  designed  a  system  arranged  on  affinity,  according 
to  the  natural  relationships,  based  upon  investigations  made 
in  the  garden  of  Trianone,  near  Versailles,  which  bel< 
Madam  Pompadour,  a  friend  and  patron  of  science. 

His  nephew,  Antoine  Laurent  de  Jussieu,  a  man  of  verj 
pressible  and  imaginative  mind,  and  profound  learning, 
after  became  the  author  of  the   natural   system.     This 
tematic  tendency  which  seeks  its  principal  object  in  the  de- 
scription   and    arrangement    of    plants,     while     it    incr. 
immensely  our  knowledge  of  the  forms  of  plants,  yet  while 
thus  occupied  with  the  external  differences,  lost  sight  of  those 
qualities  which  constitute  her  a  living  organism.     Th< 
surely  a  fascinating  charm  in  the  aspect  of  the  thousandfold 
mixture  in  the  crowded  mass  of    Mowers,  which  is  so  well  ex- 
pressed in  the  confession  of  Jean  Jacques   Rousseau,  *'  I  ant 
que  j'herborise,  je  ne  suis  pas  malheureux  ;  "  and  this  attraction 
is  not  even  absent  in  the  dried  plants  of  the  herbaria.     It  is 
attributable  to  this  fact,  that  such  a  one-sided  tendencj  as  the 
one  followed  so  long  a  time  by  the  old   Linnaaan  school  was 
kept  up  for  many  decades  by  a  great  number  of  practical 
anists.     Up  to  this  day  thrives,  especially  in  England,  tlu-  tribe 
of  root  diggers  and  herbalists  over  which  alread)  Theophras- 
tus,  two  thousand  years  ago.  made  merry. 

While  thus  amongst  the  followers  of   Linne*  the  stud)    oi 
botany    had    become    somehow    encrusted,    and    apparently 
temporarily  arrested,  a  rise  had  taken  place  long  ago  in    En 
gland.     The    experimentative    method    had    revived   and    ani- 
mated the  other  natural  sciences.      Fran  on,  tlu    i 


2^4  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

Chancellor  of  King  Tames  L,  of  England,  presented  to  philoso- 
phers a  new  method  of  inquiry — "  a  new  instrument,"  as  he 
called  it — the  "  Novum  Organum,"  a  philosophical  treatise,  an 
idea  which  Aristotle  had  not  yet  conceived,  which  led  the  way 
from  discovery  to  discovery,  and  served  to  rejuvenate  culture 
and  progress.  Bacon  taught :  "  The  natural  philosopher 
ought  not  to  confine  himself  to  the  observations  of  nature  in 
just  that  state  in  which  it  happens  to  present  itself  to  the  ob- 
server. Results  from  such  inquiries  are  ambiguous  and  con- 
fused. The  inquirer  must  understand  to  put  nature  in  such  a 
condition  that  by  rationally  conducted  examination  no  other 
but  just,  definite,  and  plain  answers  could  be  possible :  he  must 
combine  experiment  with  observation."  Like  a  seed  dropped 
on  congenial  and  well-prepared  soil,  Bacon's  advice  brought  a 
gratifying  harvest,  and  ever  since  experiment  and  observation 
go  hand  in  hand  by  every  scientific  investigation. 

The  students  of  olden  times  often  had  to  console  themselves 
with  the  poor  consolation  : 

Geheimnissvoll  am  lichten  Tag 

Last  sich  Natur  des  Schleiers  nicht  berauben, 

Und  was  sie  deinem  Geist  nicbt  offenbaren  mag 

Das  zwingst  du  ihr  nicht  ab  mit  Hebeln  nud  mit  Schrauben. 

—Goethe  (Faust). 

Mysterious,  even  in  the  open  day 
Nature  retains  her  veil,  despite  our  clamors. 
That  which  she  doth  not  willingly  display 

Cannot  be  wrenched  from  her  with  levers,  screws,  and  hammers. 

— Faust. 

The  modern  investigators  have  refuted  this  maxim  ;  with 
the  levers  and  the  screws  of  their  physical  and  chemical  ap- 
paratus, the  telescope,  microscope,  and  spectroscope,  they 
forced  Nature  to  surrender  her  recondite  secrets,  one  by  one. 
which  spontaneously  she  never  would  have  revealed. 

The  new  exoerimentative  method  came  to  be  applied  in 
the  course  of  the  seventeenth  century  for  the  investigation  of 
the  actions  of  inanimate  nature,  and  for  the  laws  of  atmos- 
pheric and  hydrostatic  pressure,  gravity,  and  light,  and  for  the 
purpose    of    submitting    them    to    mathematical    calculations. 


Philosophy  of  Boi  \  . 


Toward  the  end  of  the  century  the  same  method  wa 
sorted  to  for  the  investigation  of  animal  life,  and  the  d 
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  was  the  firsl  important  r< 
In  the  eighteenth  century,  lastly,  plants  also  und<  rgo  th 

of  experiment,  and  the  Englishman.  Hah-,  was  the  fii 
consider  the  vital  action  of  plants  as  the  result  of  the 
physical  forces,  and  to  determine  them  with  weights  and  m 
ure.     He  compares  the   force   which   propels   tin-   sap  of   the 
bleeding  grapevine  upward  in  the  spring,  •■•  a  column  of  mer- 
cury  of  a  definite  height,  or  with  tin-  pressure  of  the  .rural 
artery  of  the  horse.     He  weighs  the  quantity  of  water  which 
a  pear  tree  or  a  sunflower  absorbs  from  tin-  -nil  in  twenty 
hours;  he  sets  forth  in  the  year   1727  a  static  of   V( 
which   resolves  the   whole  of  vegetable  life   into  a   phys 
problem. 

The    Frenchman,   Duhamel,   published    in    175S   a   phys 
treatise  on  trees,  wherein  he  investigates  the  laws  by  which 
the  sap  circulates  in  the  wood  and  bark;  and  in  the  same 
appeared  a  book  on  the  functions  of  the  leaves,  by  Bonn* 
Geneva,  wherein  he  attempts  to  define  the  cause  of  the  m 
ment  of  leaves  toward  the  light,  and  their  transpiration. 

In   this  way  enters  the  physiology  of  plant-,  based   upon 
physical  science,  into  the  rank  of  the  exact  scienc 

As   soon    as.   toward    the    end    of    the    eighteenth    century 
Chemistry  awakes  out  of  the   obscure   hallucinations   1 
chemistic  dreams,  we  find  her  at  once  engaged  in  the  - 
of  botany.     The   Belgian,    Ingenhauss,  and   the    Englishman 
Priestlev.  discovered  the  wonderful   interaction  bet  v. 
tight   and   terrestric   atmosphere,    vegetable   and    animal    life, 
demonstrating  how  the   carbonic  oxide,  exhaled   by  ami 
is  inhaled  by  the  plants,  and  inversely,  that  tin  win, 

the  plants  emit  under  the  influence  of  light   is  ind 
for  the  life  of  animals.     Toward  the  end  of  the  century  Theo 
dore   Saussure,   of   Geneva,  shows   how,   by   the   im- 
plants, the  moving  force  is  supplied  by  the  light  and  h< 
the  sun,  carbonic  oxide  by  the  air.  and  water  and 
the  soil;  further,  that  the  ashes  of  the  plant 
impurities,  but  indispensable  elements,  which  1' 
up'from  the  -oil  with,  their  roots,  and  thereby  lies  the  found 
8 


226  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

tion  of  our  knowledge  of  the  chemical  nutrition  of  plants, 
which  Justus  Liebig  has  recently  elaborated  and  made  the 
basis  of  rational  agriculture. 

To  the  edifice  of  scientific  botany,  as  far  as  we  have  followed 
it,  contributed  successfully  all  nations  of  Europe — Italians. 
Englishmen,  Netherlanders,  Swedes,  and  Frenchmen ;  the 
latter,  since  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.,  conspicuously  so  through 
works  of  great  originality  and  importance.  Germany,  though, 
had  to  some  degree  since  the  reformation  ceased  to  take  part 
in  the  progressive  development ;  not  for  deficiency  of  opera- 
tors, but  for  want  of  individual  creative  ideas,  they  ranked 
second  and  third,  treading  in  the  footsteps  of  their  foreign 
neighbors. 

Last,  during  the  reign  of  Frederick  the  Great,  a  turning 
point  is  reached.  The  national  spirit  announces  itself  in  a 
vigorous  onward  push  in  novel  paths.  In  science  the  flood 
begins  to  swell ;  higher  and  higher  rises  the  wave  of  youthful 
vigor,  and  like  in  a  seasonable  spring,  all  trees,  one  after  the 
other,  become  bedecked  with  flowers,  thus  likewise  Germany 
experiences  a  rapid  development  in  all  sciences,  in  literature, 
music,  and  philosophy. 

About  the  time  of  the  seven-years'  war,  Casper  Frederic 
Wolff  originated  biology,  or  the  science  of  life,  by  his  micro- 
scopic -researches,  examining  the  development  of  animals 
from  the  egg,  and  of  leaves  and  flowers  in  the  bud.  Koehl- 
reuter,  Hedwig,  and  Conrad  Sprengel  disclosed,  by  clever  ex- 
periments and  observations,  the  secret  of  the  fertilization  of 
plants.  In  the  nineteenth  century  scientific  botany  flourishes 
in  Germany  as  it  never  did  before,  and  it  is  especially  by  the 
agency  of  German  students  that  botany  now  stands  on  an 
equal  footing  with  the  other  sciences  which  formerly  ex- 
celled it. 

Should  the  new  departure  in  modern  botany  be  brought  in 
connection  with  the  name  of  any  single  man,  no  better  one 
can  be  chosen  than  Goethe.  He  does  not  rank  with  scientists 
professionally  considered,  but  nevertheless  he  was  well  versed 
in  those  disciplines.  Although  an  accurate  observer,  reflec- 
tion overreached  observation  and  poetry  the  thought,  until 
from  the  lovely  flower  of  poetry  matured  the  natural  philoso- 


Philosophy  of  BoTAmr. 

phy.     The  reformatory  idea  which  Goethe  conceived   in  the 
view  of  living  nature,  is  the  idea  of  evolution.     When  in 

C.  F.  Wolff  did  prepare  the  way  for  the  study  of  dev< 
by    the    method    of    microscopie    examinations,    so    lik- 
Goethe  did  initiate  morphology,  the  exposition  of  the  forms 
of  plants  and  animals.     Goethe  sees  the  essence  of  life  not  in 
the  perfected  form,  no  matter  how  complicated  the  structure, 
nor  in  the  mechanical  efforts  or  fruition,  which  ever 
curring,  represent  the  play  of  life.     He  concer 
ganism  to  be  a  process  of  development,  beginning  with  tin- 
moment  of  the  birth,  and  passing  through  a  series  of  condi- 
tions to  its  final  termination.     The  universe  and  the  individ- 
ual obey  the  same  law,  as  Goethe  gives  it : 

Es  muss  such  regen,  srhaff^nd  handeln, 
Nur  sheinbar  stehts  Momente  still; 
Das  Ewige  regt  sieh  fort  in  Allem, 
Derm  Alles  muss  in  Niehts  zerfallen, 
Wenn  es  im  Sein  beharren  will. 

Even   systematic  botany  has  profited   from   morpholof 
comparisons,  which  permitted  it  to  draw  its  ideas  from  pro- 
founder  sources,  and  to  adduce  a  rational  interpretation  of  the 
genesis   of  the  organs   to   the   mere   description   of   external 
forms. 

Since  Alexander  Von  Humboldt,  animated  by  the  charm  and 
grandeur  of  the  impressions  which  he  had   received  on   his 
journeys,  had  raised  the  geography  of  plants  to  the  dignil 
a  science,  it  has  become  clear  that  there  exists  an  intimate  con 
nection  of  species,  genera,   and   families  of  plants,  with   tin- 
conformation  of  the  surface  of  the  planet,  and  the  condil 
of  soil  and  climate. 

Let  it  begin  to  stir,  give  birth. 
Take  shape  first,  then  convert 
Seemingly  for  moments  stain  Is  it  still; 
Eternal  motion  is  eternal's 
Be  sure  it  will  dissolve  to  naught 
If  to  stand  still  it  be  brought. 

More  fruit  bearing  than  any  are  the  ideas  connected  with  the 

evolutionary  doctrines  of  Darwin,  which  explain  lmw  the  in- 


228  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

numerable  forms  of  plants  ought  to  be  considered  as  one  un- 
interrupted series  of  development,  which  begins  with  the  first 
dawn  of  life,  and  remodels  form  and  structure  of  plants  in  ever- 
increasing  perfection,  and  not  as  accidental  and  isolated  in- 
dividuals. 

Unger,  and  others  have  even  conclusively  proven  that  the 
history  of  their  ancestors,  which  lie  buried  in  the  rocks  of  past 
epochs,  has  to  be  considered,  if  the  present  distribution  of 
plants  would  be  comprehended. 

Goethe  had  followed  up  the  development  of  the  plants  to  the 
germ,  but  the  starting  point  at  which  his  examinations  begin, 
the  radicle  descends  into  the  soil  and  presents  its  cotyledons 
the  moment  when  the  germ  breaks  through  its  envelopes  and 
to  the  light,  this  is  not  the  real  beginning  of  vegetable  de- 
velopment. The  question  remains :  How  comes  the  germ 
into  existence? 

The  unaided  eye  does  not  suffice,  nor  the  simple  magnify- 
ing glass,  which  alone  was  at  the  disposal  of  the  botanists  of 
the  Linnaean  time.  The  compound  microscope  had  to  come  to 
the  aid  of  the  botanist. 

The  invention  of  the  microscope  gave  the  same  impulse  to 
the  study  of  objects  of  the  smallest  dimensions,  as  did  the 
telescope  for  the  view  of  the  infinite  expanse  of  the  firmament. 
Without  knowledge  of  each  other,  and  fully  independent,  two 
scientists,  Marcello  Malphighi,  of  Bologne,  and  Nehemias 
Grew,  of  London,  put  before  themselves  the  task  to  examine 
microscopically  the  internal  structure  of  plants.  On  Decem- 
ber 29,  1671,  happened  the  memorable  incident  that  both  these 
men  presented  simultaneously  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Arts  in 
London  the  results  of  their  researches.  This  day,  therefore, 
must  be  called  the  birthday  of  microscopical  anatomy  of 
plants. 

From  this  date  we  know  that  plants  are  not  made  up  of 
flesh  and  blood,  nerves  and  veins,  as  Theophrastus  had 
fancied,  but  throughout  from  small,  vesicle-like  particles, 
which,  on  account  of  their  resemblance  to  cells  of  the  honey- 
comb, received  the  name  "  Vegetable  Cell."  The  importance 
of  this  discovery  failed  at  this  time  to  be  duly  appreciated 
and  utilized,  and  had  a  century  afterwards  nearly  fallen  into 
oblivion. 


Philosophy  oj   Boi  .\.\n . 

Again,  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  centui 

impulse  takes  hold  in  this  direction,  and  the  mi 

now  applied  with  more  painstaking  and  circumspection. 

instrument,  too,  had  been,  about    [830,  greatly  impro 

made  available  for  the  solution  of  problems  of  structun 

growth. 

The  origin  of  the  germ  or  embryo  was  the  first  object  of  in- 
quiry which  found  its  solution  in  the  discovery  thai 
plant,  be  it  palm  or  oak,  or  a  humble  grass,  is  originally  a 
simple  microscopical  cell,  which  comes  into  existence  in  the 
interior  of  the  germ,  through  the  agency  of  a  generativ< 
That  was  a  highly  important  discovery,  for  the  origin  of  a  new 
living  being  must  be  considered  a  new  creation.     Now  il 
apparent  that  the  secret  of  that  creation  consists  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  cell.     After  this  followed  the  second  problem  :     : 
develops  out  of  this  first  cell  the  complicated  plant,  with  the 
manifold  organs,  each  again  composed  of  innumerable  cells? 
The   microscope  again  served  to  illustrate   the   process:  the 
contact  of  the  fertilizing  pollen  causes  this  cell  to  form  a 
tition    through    its    middle,    dividing    it    into    two    chambers. 
Each  chamber  represents  an   independent    cell,   and   each  of 
these  soon  subdivides  itself  again,  and  by  this  same  pro 
continually  repeated,  comes  about  the  many-chambered  and 
many-celled  structures,  which  we  call  the  plant. 

Analogous  to  the  rearing  of  a  house  in  accordance  with  the 
design  which  prescribes  the  position  d\  the  stones  and 
follows  the  process  of  cell  after  cell  in  obedience  to  an  innate 
plan  which  differs  in  every  species,  and  descends  by  inher- 
itance from  generation  to  generation. 

The  larger  flowering  plants  were  naturally  the  first  ob 
submitted  to  these  investigation-,  but  it   was  soon  found 
that  the  less  conspicuous  and  simpler  plants,  commonly 
prised   under   the   name   "  Cryptogames  "■— i.   1 
weeds,  lichens,  and  fungi— afford  a  far  richer  field  to  th< 
server.    The  simpler  the  plant,  the  more  incompl* 
the  less  is  also  the  number  of  cells  composing  it,  and  the  ' 
the  chance  to  survey  the  structure  and  development     Many 
surprising  processes  accompany    the   growth   oi   the   I 
Here  only  we  meet  with  those  curious  germ  cells,  which,  like 


230  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

infusories,  swarm  about  in  the  water  with  rapid  motions. 
Here  we  find  invisible  corpuscles,  or  threads  endowed  with 
distinct  sexual  properties,  and  an  incredible  variety  of  propa- 
gation, and  such  astonishing  metamorphoses,  as  to  make  the 
same  individual  at  different  periods  of  his  life  appear  totally 
different. 

It  is  hardly  possible  for  those  who  are  not  connected  with 
such  investigations  to  conceive  the  charm  by  which  an  in- 
conspicuous little  plant  fastens  the  observer  for  hours,  days, 
nay,  even  weeks,  to  the  microscope,  until  he-  succeeds  to  close 
up  a  break  in  the  process  of  development.  No  wonder  that 
since  half  a  century  nearly  all  eminent  botanists  have  been  en- 
gaged in  the  study  of  the  evolution  of  plants,  and  that  the 
most  important  discoveries  in  plant  physiology  have  been 
made,  especially  by  German  botanists,  who  conducted  the 
most  thoroughgoing  microscopical  investigations.  Not  the 
less  in  esteem  are  held  abroad  contributions  from  German 
biological  laboratories,  and  it  is  very  pleasurable  to  recount 
the  foremost  workers  whose  works  are  amongst  the  greatest 
creations  of  German  science. 

Foremost  Schleiden  initiated  the  profounder  research  by 
his  analysis  of  the  origin  of  cells  in  general,  and  of  the  germs 
in  particular,  in  the  year  1838.  He  was  followed  by  Hugo 
Mohl,  of  Tubingen ;  Alexander  Braun,  of  Berlin ;  Wilhelm 
Hoffmeister,  of  Heidelberg;  Hanstein,  of  Bonn;  De  Bary  in 
Strassburg,  and  Sachs  in  Wiirzburg,  all  of  them  now  defunct. 
Among  the  living  are  Naegeli  in  Munich,  and  Pringsheim 
in  Berlin.  Under  the  direction  of  these  eminent  men  have, 
within  the  last  forty  years,  nearly  all  German  universi- 
ties established  public  botanical  laboratories  and  physiolog- 
ical institutes,  whereby  a  school  of  younger  scientists  was 
brought  up,  who  elaborated  thus  continuously  and  success- 
fully, that  there  is  presently  hardly  any  one  important  plant 
on  which  not  the  chain  of  development  had  link  for  link  been 
joined  together  to  a  closed  ring. 

Furthermore  had,  during  the  same  time,  with  equal  and  un- 
abated zeal,  the  investigation  of  the  development  of  the  ani- 
mal world  been  carried  on,  and  we  are  now  in  a  manner  en- 
abled to  trace  the  evolution  of  the  whole  animated  world,  from 


Philosophy  op  Botany. 

the  simple  plant  upward,  to  the  highest  being,  man  himself, 
and  to  fathom  the  great  plan  0f  |jfe  ])V  comparison  of 
tions  and  differentiations. 

But  the   services  which   the   microscope   had    render* 
scientific  botany  are  not  ended  in  detailing  the  ment 

of  plants;  for  the  cells,  whose   form   and  growth  the  micro- 
scope had  revealed,  are  not   merely  the   building   i\ 
whose  superposition  the  body  of  the  plant  had  been  built  up; 
each  cell  is  also  an  individual  living  being.      Yes,  it  is  the  main 
living  principle  in  the  plant.     As  far  as  the  tree  tak< 
nutriment  it  is  the  cells  of  its  roots  which  are  saturated  with 
the  water,  which,  concealed,  circulates  in  the  soil;  while  the 
tops  and  branches  exhale  oxygen  at  the  exposure  of  the  sun- 
light, for  it  is  the  green  cells  of  the  leaves  winch  abs 
bonic  acid  out  of  the  atmosphere  and  through  the  stimulus 
of  light  waves  convert  it  into  chlorophyll,   starch,  and  other 
substances,  and  again  emit  the  oxygen  into  the  air. 

Pending  their  growth,  it  is  the  cells  which,  stretching 
swelling  in  consequence  of  the  absorption  of  nutritive  fluid. 
give  rise  to  their  multiplication  in  definite  directions  for  thf 
formation  of  new  organs. 

Should  disease  attack  the  plant,  the  cause  lies  in  the  cells, 
which  were  disturbed  in  their  normal  functions;  and  if  ulti- 
mately the  plant  dies,  the  extinction  of  life  starts  from  the  cells. 

After  all  the  improvements  of  the  methods  with  which  the 
experimentative  physiology  had  been  advanced,  and  tin-  rela- 
tion of  plant  life  to  light,  heat,   gravitation,   electricity 
chemical  affinities  had  been  so  much  clearer  defined,  as 
possible  to  do  a  hundred  years  ago,  there  never  was  left  out  «f 
sight  the  importance  of  referring  it  to  the  life  of  the  cell. 

Moreover,  it  has  been  Sehwann  who,  in  the  year  [838,  clear- 
ly demonstrated  that  also  the  course  of  evolution  of  ever} 
imal,  and  even  of  man,  begins  with  a  simple  cell;  that  all  or- 
gans of  animals  are  composed  of  cells,  and  proceeding 
the  division  of  the  first  cell.      Further,  that   the  animal  cell  is 
of  the  same  structure  with  the  vegetable  cell  ;  there  is  but 
cell  and  one  life. 

The  same  way  that  the  mathematician  uses  to  find  the  value 
of  an  unknown  quantity  by  the  way  of  a  simple  equal 


232  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

the  same  method  investigates  the  scientist  the  occult  laws  of 
life  by  comparison  of  the  simplest  functions  of  the  cells.  Thus 
succeeded  the  genial  Virchow  to  construct  a  system  of  pathol- 
ogy upon  the  presence  of  diseased  cells. 

A  very  great  interest  attaches  to  the  recent  investigations 
about  fungi.  Problems  of  surpassing  importance,  the  solu- 
tion of  which  the  whole  civilized  world  is  eagerly  awaiting, 
are  thereby  involved.  Rust,  blight,  and  mildews  have  from 
time  immemorial  ruined  the  crops.  During  the  last  quarter 
of  a  century  nearly  all  cultivated  plants  have  been  visited  by 
epidemics,  which  commenced  locally,  here  and  there,  and  were 
unheeded,  and  then  spread  themselves  at  once  over  whole 
countries,  leaving  failure  of  crops  and  famine  in  their  train.  A 
terrible  plague  -has  been  the  potato  disease  since  1845,  and  the 
diseases  of  the  grapevines  since  1848.  Even  the  insects,  from 
the  common  fly  to  the  silkworm  and  the  forest-devouring 
caterpillars,  are  infected  by  plagues.  The  pebrine,  or  silk- 
worm disease,  worked  great  injury  to  the  silk  industry  and 
threatened  thereby  to  seriously  affect  the  wealth  of  a  nation. 

We  now  know  that  all  these  epidemics  are  caused  by  micro- 
scopic fungi,  and  spread  by  the  dispersion  of  their  spores, 
which  communicate  from  plant  to  plant,  and  from  insect  to  in- 
sect, the  germ  of  a  fatal  disease. 

After  these  facts  had  been  satisfactorily  established  the 
question  necessarily  came  up,  whether  or  not  these  insidious 
plagues  which,  traveling  from  land  to  land,  to  remain  here 
and  there  for  a  while,  and  then  to  disappear,  to  return  again 
probably  after  a  short  interval,  such  as  cholera,  typhus,  small- 
pox, scarlatina,  and  epidemic  diseases  of  domestic  animals, 
were  also  brought  about  by  the  presence  of  microscopic  fungi? 

Up  to  this  day  we  have  actually  learned  that  such  is  the  case 
in  diphtheria,  scarlatina,  Oriental  plague,  cholera,  intermit- 
tent and  relapsing  fever,  yellow  fever,  and  tuberculosis,  and 
in  hospital  gangrene,  smallpox,  septicaemia,  and  even  some 
other  non-epidemic  diseases. 

Knowing  now  the  nature  of  the  invisible  enemy,  we  may 
hope  to  devise  means  to  keep  off  the  enemy,  or  to  avert  its 
ravages. 

In  former  times  there  had  been  an  intimate  connection  be- 


1    EIILOSOPin    01     DOTANV, 

tween  botany  and  the  healing  art.     The  former  I 
to  provide  the  most  potent  drugs,  and  received  in  retun 
couragement  of  its  scientific  endeavors.     This  kind 
tionship  is  presently  very  unimportant  since  most  of  th< 
dicinal  plants  have  been  eliminated  from  the  materia  m< 
or  are  merely  obscurely  known  as  domestic  rem. 

Investigation  of  the  disease  creating  fungi  make-  up 
hereafter  setting  up  new  problems   for   both   scieno 
cannot  be  solved  advantageously  to  the  benefit    of  mankind 
except   with   mutual   aid  and   cooperation.     Modem    agricul- 
ture   and    forestry    are    likewise    intimately    connected    with 
botany.     The  former  seeks  to  understand   the   conditions   in 
which  plants  have  to  be  placed  in  order  to  produce  th< 
returns;  the  other  depends  on  information  «»f  a  sanatory  na- 
ture, or  questions  concerning  the  health  of  forest  I  1  the 
means   of  averting   noxious   influences   which   threaten    them 
with  disease  and  premature  decay. 

In  this  way  it  has  come  about  that  botany  is  n  con- 

fined  within  the  narrow  limits  of  its  former   territory. 
plied  to  the  highest  problems  of  the  natural  sciences,  it 
important    element    of    national    culture.      We    have 
and  still  further  expect  from  it  explanations  relative   to  the 
profound  questions  concerning  life:     What  is  life?     What  is 
death?     Is  there   a  specific  vital  power  which   ever  re: 
the  same,  immutably  indestructible,   although   the   individual 
may  perish?     Is   life   possibly  merely  a  phenomenon  of   the 
motion  of  matter  ,'and  equivalent  of  other  forces     light,  heat, 
gravity,  chemical  affinity — and.  under  the  law  of  correlation  oi 
energy,  transmutable  into  other  modes  of  motion,   and 
ceeding  from  them?     By  which  process  and  in  what   manner 
has  life  taken  its  origin  upon  earth?     How  did  it  receive  shape 
and    expression    in    the    innumerable    form-    of    animals 
plants?     How  did  the  long  interval-  of  the  dii 
periods   affect   it?     Finally,   are   the-    highest    expi 
functions  of  life — consciousness,  sensation,  volition,  mi... 
tion,  reflection— operation-  of  a  separate  cau 
ifications    of   life    itself,    phenomena    traceable    down    to    their 
obscure  beginnings,  nay.  even  to  the  cells  of  the  | 

Space  does  not  allow  to  dilatr  on   this  t,  but    1 


234  Philosophy  of  Botaxy. 

mention  in  the  line  of  physiological  researches  the  discoveries 
of  Bohumel  Nomec  and  G.  Haberlandt  in  respect  to  geotro- 
pism — that  is,  the  faculty  of  directing  the  growth  of  the  roots 
in  the  direction  of  the  earth's  axis. 

This  phenomenon  had  always  been  accepted  as  a  simple  fact 
of  nature,  without  any  inquiry  into,  the  directing  cause  of  this 
movement. 

Physiologists  had  some  time  ago  established  the  nature  of 
the  function  of  the  delicate  hairs  and  the  otoliths  in  the  semi- 
circular canals  and  ampullae  of  the  vertebrates,  including  man, 
to  be  organs  of  equilibration  and  localization ;  they  had  also 
found  that  the  so-called  auditory  cells  on  the  extremities  of 
insects  and  of  Crustacea,  which  are  of  a  similar  structure,  sub- 
serve the  same  purpose.  It  is  the  act  of  pressure  by  gravity 
of  these  otoliths,  now  called  statoliths,  upon  those  fine  hairs, 
which  excites  the  living  protoplasm  in  these  cells  to  effect 
functions,  resulting  in  motions  by  which  animals  become 
sensitive  of  disturbances  in  their  normal  position  in  relation 
to  normal  or  desired  direction  of  their  bodies,  in  relation  to 
gravity,  and  try  to  correct  them.  By  a  chain  of  observations 
have  the  above  observers  determined  that  an  analogous  appa- 
ratus also  subserves  the  geotropical  and  heliotropical  move- 
ments of  plants. 

Specialized  amylaceous  granules  in  the  tips  of  the  roots, 
suspended  in  the  protoplasm,  and  obeying  the  call  of  gravity, 
secure  the  centripetal  movement.  Likewise  is  it  a  statolithic 
pressure  in  the  internodes  of  the  grassculum,  which  causes  a 
swelling  on  one  side  of  such  a  blade,  and  thereby  a  flexion  or 
erection  of  the  culm,  when,  for  instance,  the  culm  of  wheat  or 
stalk  of  corn  had  been  prostrated  by  wind  or  rain. 

Thus  we  have  a  very  interesting  elucidation  of  correlation 
of  physical  phenomena  between  plant  and  animal  in  the  or- 
ganic world. 

It  has  been  my  intention  to  give  a  short  review  of  the  prob- 
lems toward  which  botanists  have  been  aiming,  and  at  which 
they  have,  notwithstanding  the  changing  demands  of  suc- 
cessive periods,  sedulously  working,  closer  and  closer  ap- 
proached, ever  since  the  time  when  twenty-two  centuries  ago 


Philosophy  oi   Botany. 

the  genius  of  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus  assigned  to  b<  I 
a  special  place  in  the  domain  of  philosophy. 

Last,  but  not  least,  it  behooves  us  to  devote  a  few  lin< 
our  own  immediate  interests.     (  )n  our  side  of  the  Atlanti 
science  of  botany  developed  on  the  same  line  oi  evoluti 
Ave  observed  it  on  the  old  continent.     All  energy  wa 
matter  of  necessity,  even  in  colonial  times,  directed  to  th< 
ferentiation    and    collection    of    species.     Learned    emigi 
and  scientific  explorers  from   France,  England,  and  Germany 
issued  at  home  the  first  notices  about  American  plants.     Na- 
tive-born citizens,  otherwise  employed  in   various   \  <  •«  .- 1 t  i -  •  1 1 -> . 
as    clergymen    or    physicians,    soon    followed,    devoting    their 
leisure   time  to  collecting  and    describing   the   rich   har 
gathered    in   their   unexplored    fields      These    men    were    all 
either  self-taught  or  had  visited  universities  in   Europe.     Bo- 
tanical training  in  public  schools  or  colleges  has  been  taken 
up  only  recently,  and  even  within  the  memory  of  botanists 
yet  living  the  courses  in  this  science  were  limited,  and  br< 
inquiry  considered  not  long  ago  as  an  object  merely  of  r 
ation  and  relaxation.     I  know  of  reputable  educational 
tutions   of   to-day   which   consider   the   instruction    in    natural 
sciences  as  a  matter  of  polite  accomplishment  only,  or  f< 
conflict  with  their  religious  sentiments.     Fortunately    for  tin- 
progress  of  science  men  who,  in  the  great  stride-  of  commerce 
and    manufactures,    have    acquired   great    wealth,    have 
that  all  the  advances  in  their  great  enterprises  have  grow  I 
of  a  succession  of  obscure  discoveries,  made  by  the 
to  pure  science,  which  the  discoverer  himself  estimated  only 
as   one    step    in    unraveling    the    great    mysteries    ol    nature 
Sooner  or  later  the  great  business  men  adopted  and  ap] 
their  discoveries  for  the  benefit  of  all   men   in  the   shrewd  art 
of  money-making.     To  these  men.  successful  in  business,  we 
owe   it  to-day   that    institution-   have    been    endowed    fi»r    the 
propagation  of  knowledge,   and.  supplied    with  ample   meant 
that  some  men  are  able  to  devote  their  entire  time  under  1 
favorable  conditions  to  scientific  research. 

All  the  greater  universities  in  tin-  country  are  n 
with  botanical  or  biological  laboratories,  in  which  much   in- 
dependent research   is  carried  on   and  published   in 


236  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

or  scientific  journals.  Botanical  gardens,  arboreta,  and  green- 
houses are  annexed  to  several,  to  serve  the  purposes  of  the 
demonstrator  or  investigator. 

St.  Louis  may  be  justly  proud  of  its  magnificent  Shaw 
Botanical  Institute,  which,  under  the  direction  of  a  distin- 
guished botanist,  is  destined  to  be  a  model  school  for  scientific 
botanists,  agriculturists,  and  horticulturists. 

In  our  own  State  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  has, 
since  several  years,  done  excellent  work,  and  issued  valuable 
instructive  publications  for  the  farmers  of  the  State.  This  in- 
stitute ought  to  be  enlarged  so  that  it  could  also  embrace  for- 
estry, and  should  have  two  auxiliary  experimental  stations, 
one  in  Middle  Tennessee  and  one  in  West  Tennessee,  added 
to  the  field  of  its  activity. 

Bacteriology,  formerly  a  branch  of  botany,  but  now  enrolled 
with  biology  on  account  of  its  far-reaching  efficiency,  has 
lately  found  a  representative  in  connection  with  the  Vander- 
bilt  Medical  College,  and  through  the  munificence  of  Mr. 
George  Vanderbilt,  and  under  the  care  of  an  eminent  bac- 
teriologist, who  for  several  years  had  attended  the  bacteriolog- 
ical laboratories  of  France  and  Germany.  It  offers  ample  op- 
portunities to  the  student  who  enjoys  the  use  of  an  equipment 
which  is  provided  with  all  modern  appliances. 

I  am  confident  that  the  time  is  not  far  off  when  we  will  have 
institutions  endowed  with  the  fullest  outfits  in  libraries,  in- 
struments, greenhouses,  and  botanical  gardens,  for  original 
work  conducted  by  the  heads  of  the  departments,  or  by  stu- 
dents under  their  direction.  The  newly  acquired  colonies 
offer  the  most  inviting  locations  in  the  tropics  for  biological 
stations. 

I  undertook  the  wearisome  and  painful  task  to  delineate  in 
outlines  the  period  from  the  downfall  of  the  Alexandrian 
school  to  the  revival  of  letters  in  Italy ;  to  remind  the  read- 
er to  what  fearful,  depravity  mankind  will  sink  when,  for  sake 
of  hegemony  in  religion  or  politics,  for  hierarchy  or  imperial- 
ism, the  light  of  reason  is  put  out  and  intellectual  darkness  is 
spread  over  the  land  to  shield  the  despoilers  from  responsi- 
bility; no  longer  by  fire  and  sword,  yet  by  supple  and  con- 


Philosophy  01   Boi  ksr. 

cealed  ways  is  presently  waged   the  assault 
of  conscience  and  diffusion  of  knowledge. 

That  the  important  results   which   followed   th<  in- 

vestigations, that  discoveries  which  so  irresistibly  I 
botanical  students,  that  such  intellectual  commotio! 
but  little  attention  in  wider  circle 

not  accuse  the  specific  or  abstruse  character  of  the  problem, 
but  rather  hold  the  deplorable  inadvertency  of  our  educational 
system  responsible  for  it. 

Continually  treading  in   the  steps  of  antiquated   methods, 
the  schools  neglect  to  stimulate  and  encourage  a  I  aturc 

and  its  works,  and  withhold  the  necessary  elementary  in- 
structions, without  the  aid  of  which  a  lively  interest  and  intel- 
ligent comprehension  of  scientific  questions  is  not  DO 

Conditions  and  wants  of  society  are  changing,  and  methods 
and   maxims  which   formerly  suited    the   political    state   have 
lost  their  meaning.     Modern  thought  leads  to  the  convi 
that  the  interactions  of  conditions  upon   which  depends  the 
status  of  society  are  governed  by  physical  laws,  definite 
unalterable,    like    those    which    control    the    development    of 
plants.     How  governments  should  direct  those  movemei 
not  a  matter  of  sentiment  and  feeling,  but  a  purely  scientific 
question. 

In  the  present  educational  system  memory  gets  loaded  with 
a  heavy  charge  of  book  learning,  consisting  of  disconm 
doctrines,  all  of  them  necessary  for  the  practical  wai 
times — the   ideal   demand  of   general   culture.     The 
correlation  between  this  heterogeneit)    now  divested  ol 
ligent   means   to   bridge   over   the    mental   chasm. 
mental  deficiency  of  our  higher  education. 

A  philosophical  method  of  thinking,  the  essential  *>i  which 
is  the  endeavor  to  comprehend  the  interrelation-  o 
phenomena  in  the  physical  and  ethical  world,  through  which 
the  individual  feels  himself  inseparably  allied   in   harmori 
concert  with  Infinity,  is  needed.     The  iv. 
now  pregnantly  characterizes  society,  is  a  declared  part 
ism,  a  premature  application  to  specialt)  vocations,  controlling 
a  narrow  intellectual   horizon.     Her  nate  the 

;ions  of  opinions,  and   the  diverse  monomanias  in  i 


238  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

social,  and  other  spheres;  hence  the  thriving  of  spiritualism, 
Christian  society,  single  tax  folly,  silver  swindle,  and  other 
fads.  Would  this  deportment  be  restricted  to  the  class  of  the 
half  educated,  then  the  danger  would  not  be  so  threatening  as 
it  really  is,  when  We  see  that  college  graduates,  educational 
leaders,  and  university  professors  are  likewise  destitute  of  the 
necessary  philosophical  training. 

May,  therefore,  instruction  in  the  natural  sciences  become 
more  general  and  thorough ;  may  the  spread  of  scientific  cul- 
ture strengthen  the  scientific  spirit  and  make  it  a  world-con- 
quering power! 

Unbiased  by  authority,  loving  the  truth  for  its  own  sake, 
may  it  secure  the  happiness  of  the  Commonwealth ! 


FORESTRY. 


Tho'  floods,  with  time,  gome  roots  have  bared. 
Blasts  the  limbs  have  bent  and  gnaned. 
The  bark  by  birds  is  pecked  and  scarred. 
Green  stayed  the  crown  and  unimpaired  ; 
Sweet  songsters'  quiet  nesting  berth, 
It  shelters  now  the  timid  herd. 


The  Forest. 


Of  the  many  obstacles  the  human  race-  has  had  to 
with  to  maintain  its  existence,  increase  in  number  of  ind 
uals  and  ultimately  gain  mastery,  not  the  leasl  one  was  the 
woods,  where  they  in  overwhelming  expanse  spread  o 
tinental    regions.     They  offered    more   adequate    shelter, 
more  copious  and  better  adapted  food  to  the  mightier  animals 
than  to  him,  hemmed  in  his  steps,  and  prevented  his  gathi 
into   larger   groups.      This   circumstance    governed    n-r    long 
periods  the  fate  of  our  ancestors  in  the  northern  latitude 
the  Eastern  Continent.     After  the  retreat  of  the  <  rlacial  p- 
we  find  him  following  the  shore  lines  from  the  Baltic  to  the 
Biscayan  Gulf  as  a  shell  and  fish  devouring  savage,  or 
inhabiting  troglodyte. 

In  the  highlands  of  Central  Asia  he  first  multiplied  in 
numbers  that  he  commenced  to  direct   his   migrations    . 
ward  into  the  deep  forests,  upon  paths  which,  perhaps,  the 
woolly  rhinoceros  and  herds  of  woolly  elephants  had  bl 
and  tramped  out  for  him.     The  extension  southward  found  a 
barrier    in    the    ice-glittering    ranges    of    the    I  lima':.. 
Hindu  Kooh.     At  this  time,  when  thousands  of  yeai 
our   era   this   first   westward    movement    began    int..   tin 
matian  plains,  into  the  regions  of  the  Danube  and  Wolj 
pires  had  commenced  to  form  in   tin-  deltas  of  the   Nih 
phrates,  and  Tigris,  and   all   around   tin-  great    Meditd 
Gulf.    With  a  benign  and  generous  -mile  nature  invited  h 
groves  where  the  date  palm  bore  weighty  clustei 
cious  fruit,  offering  a  delicious  meal;  fruit-laden  carob 
with  spreading  limb,  gave   nutritious   Food   for  him  ami 
herds;   groves   of   olives,   chestnuts,   and    walnuts   alten 
in  the  scenery  in  tin-  wide  territorj    from  the  bank* 
Ganges    to    the    shores    of    Lusitania,    where    tin     • 
mingles   with   the  noble   -rape   ami   tin-   gi 
had  thought  to  strew  the  nutritious  barle)  on  tl 
waters  of  the  Nile  and  Euphrates,  and  the  rich  hi 


242  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

easily  and  safely  garnered ;  plenty  spreading  all  around,  even 
the  animal  world  came  to  the  aid  of  their  nobler  brother ;  the 
proud  Apis  had  bent  his  nervy  neck  under  the  yoke,  sheep 
flocked  around  him,  and  camel  and  elephant  lifted  him  on  their 
backs. 

Thus  did  the  Southland  empires  nourish  and  decay,  while 
the  Northland  barbarian  made  little  headway  in  clearing 
openings,  and  prepared  with  the  meanest  tools  the  virgin  soil 
for  the  production  of  a  little  oat  and  rye  and  flax,  until  the 
Scandinavian  had  discovered  the  art  of  making  iron  from  the 
rich  and  easily  reducible  ores  buried  in  his  mountains. 
Swinging  the  iron  ax,  no  tree  could  stand  before  him ;  the 
hammer  opened  the  treasure  vaults  of  the  mountains,  the 
plowshare  laid  out  broader  fields,  and  with  the  sword  in  his 
fist  he  overwhelmed  the  Roman  intruders  in  the  Herzynian 
forest. 

With  the  spread  of  civilization  the  demand  for  wood  grew 
from  year  to  year,  and  after  the  lapse  of  centuries  fields  and 
meadows  overreached  in  expanse  the  woods,  for  whose  pres- 
ervation little  thought  was  given.  They  were  no  longer  com- 
mon property,  but  were  divided  out  amongst  communities, 
or  held  as  private  property  by  princes  and  noblemen.  They 
were  principally  valued  as  resorts  and  retreats  of  all  kinds  of 
game,  the  chase  being  the  principal  sport  and  amusement  of 
the  nobility. 

The  continued  despoliation  of  the  woods  wrought  at  last  in 
the  mountainous  as  well  as  seashore  regions  of  Central  Europe 
severe  injury  by  denudation  of  the  mountain  slopes,  and  con- 
sequent inundations,  such  that  enlightened  individuals,  and 
the  governments  themselves,  realized  the  necessity  of  pro- 
tective legislation  enactments  against  unlimited  felling  of 
trees. 

Restorative  efforts  on  scientific  plans,  with  a  view  of  per- 
manence in  supervision  have  been. carried  on  in  France,  Ger- 
many ,and  Italy  at  enormous  expense  and  with  great  success 
for  more  thati  one  hundred  years. 

History  is  now  repeating  its  lessons  in  the  vast  realm  of 
the  Union,  where,  by  the  unparalleled  development  of  the 
country,  the  demand  for  timber  has  grown  out  of  all  propor- 


PiiiLosoriiv  01  Boi  ajtt. 

tionfor  a  continued  supply  under  the  unchecked  inroads 
lumber  trade,  and  the  unparalleled  facilities  for  internal  • 

portation  by  navigation.     The  importance  of  the 

terests  have  induced  me  to  devote  some  pages  to  thi 

ment  of  our  national  economy,  and  to  notice   the  emotional 

and  aesthetic  impressions  upon  the  human  mind  evoked  by  the 

forest  in  the  aspect  of  nature. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  the  difference  in  the  sentiment 
and   association   of   thought  as   it   ever   existed  i    the 

southern  and  northern  inhabitants  of  the  old  continent. 

The  aspect  of,  or  sojourn  in.  the  woods  filled  the  I 
well  as  the  Roman   with   fear  and  dismay;   he   avoided   them 
as  habitations  of  robbers  and  wild  beasts.     From   Homer  to 
Tacitus  poets  and  historians  paint  it  in  the  darkest  coloi 
the  dark  abode  of  demons  and  monsters,  filled  with  cut  an. 
thorns.     "  Subit  aspera  silva  lappaegue  tribulique  "     *'  If'  I 
the  dismal  wood  with  thistles  and  tangles  uncouth."     (  Vii 

The  German  mythical  folklore  spins  the  finest  thread-  • 
poetical  mood  under  the  deep  shadows  of  beech  and  <»ak. 

Over  the  Rhine  into  the  tanwood,  where  fir  and  pine  thickly 
-crowd,  storms  the  baneful  chase  of  King  Gunther;  <>n  the 
spring  underneath  the  linden  sinks  the  dying  Siegfried  into 
a  bed  of  flowers,  pierced  by  the  spear  of  Hagen;  Genofeva 
hides  from  the  ire  of  her  husband  in  the  depth  of  the  foi 
Hildebrand  and  Hugobrand,  the  greatest  swordsmen  of  their 
■day,  cross  their  swords  in  furious  combat,  until  Hildebrand 
recognizes  from  the  weight  of  his  strokes  that  his  comba 
must  be  iiis  son;  here  gathers  Cinderella  blueberries,  and  fra- 
grant woodruff  for  spicy  May  wine,  and  loiters  the  bard,  spin- 
ning the  yarn  for  his  songs  with  which  he  cheers  the  daunt- 
less hearts  of  the  champions  when  the  mead-tilled  horn  makes 
the  rounds. 

The  poetically  inspired  naturalist  covets  a  response  from  h^ 
dear  favorites,  Flora's  children,  to  his  own  !  them,  and 

is  sore  at  heart  and  loath  to  believe  that   tl  their 

forms,  splendor  of  coloring,  and  the  sweet  breath  of  theii 
halations  should  delight  and  benefit  creatures  only  t. 
in  the  scale  of  life  from  themselves,  without  an;. 
to  their  own  selves;  that  they  should  be  without  any  partici- 


244  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

pation  in  the  endearment  with  which  they  fill  the  human 
hearts.  It  appears  contrary  to  the  demands  of  human  reason- 
ing that  so  much  individuality  should  exist  without  some  kind 
of  consciousness  or  subjective  individuality. 

Especially  in  their  higher  and  enduring  arborescent  forms 
plants  are  typical  of  the  attainment  of  the  ideal  endeavors  of 
man,  to  accomplish  in  the  historical  evolution  of  the  race  that 
well-balanced  social  state  in  which  the  single  citizen,  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  abilities,  may  contribute  to  the  general  wel- 
fare, and  partake  of  the  emoluments  equally  accessible  to  all. 
Within  their  bodies  the  component  cells  and  structures  may 
change,  be  altered,  die,  and  be  regenerated,  the  whole  remain- 
ing a  personal  perpetuity  lasting  for  ages.  This  is  beautifully 
expressed  in  the  Xenia  of  Goethe,  when  he  says : 

Such  du  das  Schoenste,  das  Hoechste  ? 
Die  Pflanze  kann  es  dich  lehren! 
Was  sie  willenlos  ist,  sei  Du  es  willend, 
Das  ists. 

Do  you  ask  what  in  beauty  and  goodness 

Ranks  high  beyond  measure  ? 
Be  taught  by  the  plant ;  what  she  does  without  choice 

You  do  it  freely  with  pleasure. 


The  Introduction  of  a  National  Forestry 
Policy  in  the  United  States- 


It  is  about  twenty  years  since  for  the  first  time  in  an  ofl 
way  the  attention  of  the  Federal  Government  had  1-  • 
to  the  importance  of  providing  means  of  pi  for  the 

forests    within    the    national    domain,    against 
improvident  despoliation. 

It  was  ex-Senator  Carl  Schurz  who  discussed, 
of  the  Interior,  the  necessary  evil  consequences  of  th< 
practice  of  forest  devastation,  and   the   responsibility   of  tin- 
present  generation  in  permitting  and  perpetuating  pra 
of  public  policy  which  would  s<x»n  lead  to  irreparable  ii 
to  the  future  welfare  of  this  great  republic. 

Mr.  Schurz's  world-wide  experience   was   in   this   instanc 
based  upon  his  personal  observations  of  the  forestry  man 
ment  in  Germany  and  France,  and  the  disastrous  consequ< 
that  in  the  latter  country  had  followed  the  reckl<  tment 

of  the  forests  in  the  last  century,  and  which   ultimately,  by 
stringent   legislation,  and   at  enormous   expenditures, 
be  brought  to  an  end,  and  restoration  secured  by  a  well -de' 
forestry  administration. 

The  remarks  of  Mr.  Schurz  were,  for  a  time,  treated  with 
some  merriment;  and  even   Mr.   Blaine,  a-   wise  a  man 
was,  would  join  in  the  ridicule,  and  call  Mr.  Schui  I  man 

idealist— to  which,  however,  the  latter  did  not  let    Mr.   Blaine 
wait  a  long  while  before  giving  him  a  sharp  rejoinder. 

There  was  then  scarcely  a  man  amongst  the  native  citi 
who  was  not  fully  persuaded  that  the  wealth  of  our  * 
imperishable,  and  that   the  benignant    hand  of  natui 
fully  replenish  the  deficiency  without  calling  upon  the  a 
man  for  minding  and  nursing. 

It    was    onlv   within    a    few    German    circle-,    scientists,    and 
practical  foresters,  who  had  seen  in  their  old  hoi 
management,  or  even   functioned   as   for< 


246  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

the  immensity  of  the  threatened  danger  was  fully  appreciated, 
and  who  knew  that  the  coming  generations  would  sorely  suf- 
fer for  the  faults  of  the  fathers. 

The  census  reports  had  meantime  given  indisputable  facts 
relative  to  the  great  losses  within  the  forest  region  of  the  ever- 
recurring  conflagrations  and  the  actual  amount  of  lumber 
culled  in  successive  years. 

A  generally  better  comprehension  of  the  period  of  time 
which  nature  requires,  even  under  the  most  favorable  condi- 
tions, to  effect  a  restoration,  and  the  understanding  of  the 
obvious  disturbances  in  such  a  process  in  territories  unguarded 
by  effective  protection  against  any  kind  of  abuse,  soon  cre- 
ated a  reaction  in  public  opinion.  An  agitation  which  had 
been  started  in  behalf  of  an  establishment  of  forest  reserva- 
tions, with  national  grants,  and  through  provisions  enacted 
by  State  legislation,  soon  grew  in  public  favor,  and  the  crea- 
tion of  a  National  Forestry  Association  was  the  first  impor- 
tant result  of  this  movement. 

The  National  Forestry  Association  is  mainly  composed  of 
the  membership  of  the  different  State  Forestry  Associations, 
and  holds  annual  migratory  meetings.  Nearly  every  State  in 
the  Union  now  has  such  a  forest  association. 

This  work  was  started  and  guided  along  through  the  un- 
ceasing labors  and  invincible  energy  of  two  citizens.  The 
one,  Professor  B.  E.  Fernow?  the  former  Chief  of  the  Forestry 
Division  of  the  Agricultural  Department  in  Washington,  is 
a  native  of  the  Prussian  Province  of  Pommern,  a  graduate  of 
the  Forestry  Academy  of  Munden,  who,  after  having  served 
as  a  volunteer  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  entered  the  forestry 
service  (as  an  aspirant  to  the  higher  forestry  service).  He 
resigned  this  position  to  emigrate  to  this  country.  Soon  after- 
wards he  was  married  to  an  American  lady,  a  woman  of  great 
talents  and  hfgh  culture,  who,  with  the  fullest  apprehension 
of  the  worthiness  of  his  intentions,  was  a  devoted  and  skillful 
aid  to  the  advancement  of  his  well-conceived  plans.  Undis- 
turbed by  the  change  of  the  different  administrations  has  he. 
until  recently,  presided  over  the  Forestry  Division  of  the  Agri- 
cultural Department;  but  recently  (in  1899)  he  accepted  the 


Philosophy  01  Boi  ak\  . 

charge  of  Director  of  the  Foresfr}  Collej  >rnell  Univer- 

versity,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

The  other  gentleman  is  G.  Pinchot,  a  private    i 
scendant  of  an  old,  distinguished   New    England   family.     In 
his  travels  through  Germany  he  had  made  tl  m  of 

the  agricultural  and  economic  condition  of  the  latter  countrj 
an  object  of  close  and  extensive  study.     The  still  pi 
productiveness  of  its  soils,  and  the  marvelous  pn 
its  forests   impressed  him   so  profoundly   that    he   concluded, 
after  his  return,  to  bring  to  public  benefit   the  conclua 
which  he  had  drawn  from  his  observations.     Assisted  I 
friends,  he   succeeded  in   the  foundation   of   several    fori 
associations  in  the  New  England   States,  and  hold-  now  the 
position  of  Consulting  Forester  to  the  National  Forestry  A  — 
ciation,  with  offices   in   New  York   and    Boston.     H< 
German  very  fluently,  and  most  cordially  receives  any  I 
who  wishes  to  call  on  him  to  either  receive  or  impart  infor- 
mation. 

These  societies  initiated  their  movements  with  petitioi 
Congress,  as  well  as  to  the  State  Legislatures,  for  the  i 
ment  of  laws  for  the  protection  and  preservation  of  tl 
in  general,  and  the  national  domain  in  particular. 

It  had  also  been  noticed  that  the  frequent  conflagrations 
not  only  reduced  the  extent  of  the  timbered  area,  but  al 
fully  depleted  every  kind  of  game.     Thus  repeats  itself  in  the 
new  continent  the  ancient  experience  of  the  necessan  and 
ural  correlation  of  the  existence  of  the  game  with  the  pr» 
tion  of  the  forests.     Numerous  associations  of  sportsmen 
hunters  joined  in  with  petition-  i<>\-  protective   hunting 
and  restriction  of  the  chase  within  limited  periods.      In 
uals  convicted  of  willfully  setting  tire  to  the  woods  w« 
liable  to  severe  punishments. 

This  was  all  very  good   theoretically,   but  ally 

laws  were  dead  letters  only,  there  being  no  provisions  mad', 
for  their  execution   bv   persons   specially   appointed   and 
trusted  with  the  execution  of  the  same.     There  was  but 
sympathy  as  yet  anion--  the  masses  for  abseil  mprehen 

sion  of  the  subject,     [n  various  States,  foremost  in  Wis   onsin 
where  the  numerous  German  population  had  considerabl 


248  Philosophy  of  Botaxy. 

litical  influence,  likewise  in  Minnesota  and  Michigan,  forest 
guards  were  appointed  to  look  after  forest  fires ;  while  in 
Maine,  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York  the  pro- 
tection of  the  game  was  principally  thought  of.  Both  these 
functions  do  necessarily  coincide  to  effect  that  kind  of  serv- 
ice which  in  Germany  is  comprehended  under  game  and  for- 
est keeping. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  how  the  same  events  which  in  all 
European  countries  led  to  the  introduction  of  a  regulated  for- 
est administration  give  also  here  again  the  impulse  for  the 
like  provisions.  There,  like  here,  wood  was  cut  for  the  local 
needs  in  building  and  firewood,  without  any  reflection  or  care 
for  the  welfare  of  posterity,  and  would  perhaps  permanently 
have  sufficed  with  the  natural  aftergrowth  for  all  the  time  to 
come ;  but  with  the  increase  of  the  industries,  mining,  and 
shipbuilding  the  deficit  in  heavy  timbers  made  itself  felt,  and 
preventative  measures  against  excessive  depletion  had  to  be 
instituted. 

Thus  it  came  that  toward  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  first 
Venice,  the  "  Queen  of  the  Seas,"  enacted  laws  in  which  she 
reserved  certain  forests  exclusively  for  use  in  her  shipyards, 
and  also  laid  restrictions  for  the  cutting  of  timbers  in  private 
estates,  and  placed  the  management  of  all  under  a  regularly 
officered  administration.  Holland,  Belgium,  France,  and  En- 
gland took  similar  measures. 

Relations  of  a  different  character  ruled  in  Germany,  where 
the  passion  for  the  chase  indulged  in  by  princes  and  nobility 
drew  their  attention  to  the  preservation  of  the  forest. 

The  right  of  hunting  big  or  small  game  was  a  royal  preroga- 
tive or  privilege  of  the  landed  nobility.  Their  numerous  reti- 
nue of  huntsmen  constantly  on  the  lookout  for  poachers,  ex- 
pert in  all  things  in  connection  with  woods  and  their  inhab- 
itants, formed  a  sort  of  clannish  organization,  and  formed  an 
excellent  contingent  for  the  gradually  developing  intelligent 
supervision  of  forests,  and  by  and  by  became  converted  into  a 
professionally  and  scientifically  educated  corps  of  public 
service  with  military  organization.  Care  for  the  protection  of 
game  is  in  Germany  inseparably  connected  with  the  economic 
management.     In  a  similar  manner  must  we  also  begin  to  start 


Philosophy  01  Botany. 

a  crew  of  foresters  until  regular  schools  of  forestry  will 
been  established. 

After  the  first  steps  had  been  made  with  the  appointmei 
wardens  and  gamekeepers  in  various  States,  n  wj 
in  order  to  secure  rational  proceedings,  to  procure  ampli 
tistical  data,  to  give  exact  information  about  the 
tion,  and  condition  of  the  still  unoccupied  and  timber  clad 
lie  domain.     This  work  had  been  carried  on  by  the  fori 
division  with  great  success,  and  the  annual  reports  of  il 
kept  Congress  so  well  informed  and  interested  that  on  M. 
3,   1891,  the  President  was  empowered  t"  issue  a   pi 
tion  that  such  suitable  parts  of  the  public  lands   a-  had  not 
yet  become  private  property  should  be  reserved  a-  foi 
ervations.     In   addition    to   the   Yellowstone    Mat  ion  al    Park, 
which  is  indeed  but  a  great  forest  and  game  reservation,  there 
were   next   such   reservations   selected    a-    are    interestii  . 
historic,  scientific,  or  economic  respects.     Thus  tin-  Yosemite 
Reservation  in  California,  where  are  the  last  remainders  of  the 
once  extensive  stands  of  the  giant  sequoia,  should  be  pres 
and  rescued  from  total  extermination. 

It  was  furthermore  considered  as  a  matter  of  great   in 
tance  to  preserve  extensive  bodies  of  wooded  territories  at  the 
head  waters  of  the  great  streams,  to  maintain  the  water  supply, 
and  regulate  it  to  prevent  excessive  inundation. 

In  this  way  had  taken  place  the  foundation  of  a  great  many 
reservations  in  the  AYest  and  Northwest,  when,  in  the  b 
ning  of  the  year  1897,  President  Cleveland  issued  anothei  | 
lamation  which  secured  at  once  seventeen  more  tions, 

with  a  total  area  of  more  than  21,000,000  ana-.      I  !.-  fai 
act  of  prudent  statesmanship  was  prompted  through 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Science,  made  "ii  requ< 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Hoke  Smith.     Tin-  commit! 
composed  of  the  most  distinguished  scientists  and  1 
this  country,  and  the\    had   Eor  their  investigations  i 
$100,000  at  their  disposition.      Divided  into 
they  explored  carefully  the  limits,  nature,  and  conditioi 
such  regions  as  they  thought  best  suitable  for  p.nn. inn- 
ervations.    The  commission  in  tin-  tinal  report  also 
recommended  to  introduce   and   establish   a   regulai 


250  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

administration,  after  the  methods  of  the  European,  especially 
the  German,  forestry. 

Here  it  was  for  the  first  time  that  recognition  was  given  to 
the  necessity  of  regular  forestry  administration,  having  in 
view  not  only  the  preservation,  but  also  the  exploitation,  man- 
agement, and  rejuvenating  of  the  forests,  after  the  example 
of  the  German  forestry  system,  through  educated  professional 
forest  officers. 

One  would  think  that  the  readiness  with  which  the  energetic 
President  Cleveland  responded  to  the  proposition  of  the  com- 
mission would  have  been  received  with  the  greatest  satisfac- 
tion and  immediate  acceptance  in  the  halls  of  Congress.  On 
the  contrary,  it  raised  a  storm  of  indignation  amongst  Repre- 
sentatives as  well  as  in  the  Senate.  Especially  the  latter  suf- 
fered itself  to  be  influenced  by  those  great  combines  which 
drew  enormous  revenues  from  the  despoliation  of  the  woods, 
selling  the  lands  afterwards  again  to  actual  settlers.  Gov- 
ernment supervision  would  have  put  an  end  to  their  specula- 
tions. A  bill  passed  the  House  setting  aside  the  proclamation. 
It  was  returned  with  the  President's  veto.  The  matter  was 
laid  over  until  March  I,  1898,  and  a  resolution  passed  that  the 
new  reservations  should  be  again  surveyed,  and  remain  as 
such,  provided  that  not  before  the  expiration  of  said  time  they 
should  have  been  otherwise  disposed  of.  It  is  evident  that 
no  change  will  occur  from  Mr.  Cleveland's  policy. 

An  actual  beginning  of  a  national  forest  administration 
has  furthermore  taken  place  through  the  issue  of  regulations 
of  the  General  Land  Commissioner  in  Washington,  who  is  in- 
trusted with  the  supervision  of  the  forest  reservations  con- 
cerning the  sale  at  public  auction  of  all  timbers  allowed  to  be 
cut  on  the  public  lands.  The  felling  and  transporting  of  the 
logs  is  also  governed  by  specific  regulations. 

The  first  methodic  and  scientific  forest  administration  is, 
since  a  few  years,  engaged  in  active  work  upon  the  extensive 
•  possessions  of  Mr.  George  Vanderbilt  in  Biltmore,  N.  C.  The 
forest  administration  is  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  C.  A. 
Schenck,  a  graduate  of  the  University  of  Giessen,  Germany. 
A  forestry  school  has  been  opened  in  the  same  place. 

Mr.  Vanderbilt  has  furthermore  made  a  proposition  to  the 


Philosophy  of   IJotaht. 

trustees  of  the  University  of  the  South,  at  S< 

there,  at  his  expense,  a  forester  and  a  forest  school  for  th< 

ular  management  of  the  extensive  area  I  [0,00 

by  the  University  of  the  South  on  the-  Cumberland  pla 

around  Sewanee. 

The    eourse    of    instruction    prescribed    in    German    foi 
schools,  or  academies,  embraces  the  following  lectui 
A:  Fundamental  Instruction:  General  and  agricultural  chem- 
istry;   (2)    mineralogy   and    geognosy,    with    special    instruc- 
tions in  soil  analysis;  (3)  botany  as  general  botany,  or  ; 
physiology  and  forest  botany;  (4)  general  zoology  and  I 
zoology;  (5)  physic, meteorology  and  climatolog) 
mathematics,  with  surveying  and  drawing:  (7)  theory  of  me- 
chanics;  (8)    national  economy;     B :  Specialties:    (1 
planting  and  maintaining;  (2)   forest   protection;  (3)   utiliza- 
tion; (4)  forest  mathematics;  (5)  designing  and  locating  plots ; 
(6)    bookkeeping  and   forest    police;    17)    gamekeeping 
history  of  science  of  forestry. 

In  answer  to  the  question  raised  about  the  financial  n  - 
of   a  regular   forest  administration    a>   a   branch 
national  government,  I  copy  from  the  Forester  of  March, 
the  following  abstract  on  the  forest  management  of  the 
dom  of  Bavaria : 

Financial  Results  of  Forest  Administration  in  Bavaria. 

In  this  small  kingdom,  with  over  5.000,000  people  on  an 
of  about  29,000  geographical  square  miles,  or  about   hal 
great  as  that  of  the  State  of  Wisconsin,  and  with  about    ; 
cent  mountain  district,  the  forest  has  long  hem  r< 
an  indispensable  part  of  a  well-to-do  Commonwealtl 
during  the  Middle  Ages  the  cities  and  religious  bodi< 
monasteries  and  churches  ^i  this   region,  accumulated 
properties.     The  "  Nueremberger   Reichswald "   had 
famous  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  as  earl)   as  t:  «    y<  ar  l6l 
definite  forestry  regulations  helped  to  develop  a  judi 
of  the  woods  and  their  maintenance  on  all  expo 
lands. 

For  over  forty  years  the  forests  of  Bavaria  hav< 
the  neighborhood  of  6,000.000  acres,  or  about  34  \>-  f  l,K" 


252  Philosophy  of  Box  ax  y. 

total  area,  and  they  have  been  owned  all  this  time  in  about  the 
same  proportions — namely,  about  one-third  by  the  State,  one- 
half  by  private  owners,  the  rest  by  villages  and  corporations. 

The  policy  of  the  State  has  been  during  all  this  time  to  in- 
crease its  holdings  wherever  practicable,  and  more  than 
$8,000,000  have  been  spent  in  the  way  of  land  purchases  since 
1830.  But  even  with  private  owners  a  similar  disposition 
exists,  and  though  the  right  to  clear  land  is  given  wherever 
this  may  be  shown  to  be  fit  for  agricultural  purposes,  there  has 
been  almost  as  much  land  restocked  with  woods  by  private 
owners  and  villages  as  has  been  cleared,  so  that  the  total  hold- 
ings of  private  owners  have  not  been  reduced  through  clearing 
by  more  than  one-third  pro  mille.  Of  the  6.2  millions*  acres  o£ 
forest,  about  46  per  cent  is  stocked  with  spruce  and  fir,  usually 
harvested  at  an  age  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  years ; 
30  per  cent  is  pine  (nearly  all  Scotch  pine — a  hard  pine  resem- 
bling our  red  or  Norway  pine),  largely  used  as  a  firewood,  and 
generally  cut  at  an  age  of  eighty  years  and  less.  The  rest  is 
stocked  with  hardwoods,  mostly  beech,  which  is  allowed  to- 
grow  to  an  age  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  years ;  some 
white  oak  (Quercns  pedunculata),  part  of  which  is  managed 
as  tanbark  coppice,  being  cut  down  every  fifteen  or  twenty- 
live  years,  and  part  is  allowed  to  grow  into  larger  timber,  for 
which  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  years  are  necessary  in 
this  region.  The  yield  of  cut  per  acre  is  generally  large. 
Groves  one  hundred  years  old,  cutting  10,000  cubic  feet  of  tim- 
ber per  acre,  are  by  no  means  rare  in  the  forests  of  the  foot- 
hills, and  even  the  poor  rocky  Alpine  ranges  are  made  to  yield 
during  the  same  length  of  time  from  3,000  to  4,000  cubic  feet. 
In  the  State  forests  about  61  cubic  feet  per  acre  grows,  on  an 
average,  every  year  over  the  entire  area,  so  that  they  furnish 
an  annual  cut  of  about  126,000,000  cubic  feet  of  timber  and 
firewood. 

In  the  private  forests  the  growth  and  consequent  yield  is 
generally  smaller,  since  less  care  is  had  and  less  skill  displayed. 
Nevertheless,  according  to  a  thorough  examination  made 
about  i860,  the  growth  even  in  this  private  and  village  woods 
amounted  to  about  54  cubic  feet  per  acre  and  year. 

*  State  and  private  ownership. 


PhILOSOPHI    01     BOTAKT. 

With  increased  care  the  State  Forests,  of  which  m 
per  cent  is  unproductive  as  rocky  wastes,  roads,  etc.,  1 
made  to  yield  more  wood  and  a  greater  money  return.      I 

In  1829  the  cut  was  35  cubic  feet  of  wood  (from  all 
measuring  over  five  inches  in  diameter)  :  in   [850  the  cut 
44  cubic  feet;  in  1S60  the  cut  was  48  cubic  feet  :  and  in 
cut  per  acre  had  increased  to  60  cubic  feet. 

While  in  1850  fully  84  per  cent  of  the  cut  was  still  fin 
this  inferior  class  formed  onl)    <>~  per  cent   in    [880,  and   thi^ 
proportion  is  still  changing  in  favor  of  bole  size  material,  a^ 
the  average  age  and  size  of  the  timber  increa 
half  and  half  in  1896. 

The  money  returns  of  Bavarian  State  forests  have  no1 
so  great  as  those  of  the  forests  of  Saxony  and  Wurtteml 
This  is  partly  due  to  a  prevalence  of  mountain  lands,  which 
reduce  the  yield,  increase  the  cost  of  all  operations,  and  partly 
also  to  a  less  intensive  management.     Nevertheless,  impi 
ments  in  methods  have  led  to  fully  as  great  an  advance  in  the 
net  revenue  here  as  in  the  neighboring  States,  so  that  th 
income,  which  was  only  $1  per  acre  and  year  in 
$1.92,  or  nearly  double  that  amount. 

In  this  way  the  little  State  of  Bavaria  has  a  net  income  Fi 
its  forest  property  alone — 2,091,930  acres — of  nearly  four  mil- 
lion dollars  per  year,  after  paying  out  in  wages  for  superv 
logging,  planting,  etc.,  a  like  amount,  the  net  revenue 
ing  in  1896  just  50  per  cent  of  the  gross  income. 

Considering  the  many  difficulties  of  stocking  rough    V 
and  other  mountain  lands  with  forests,  it  is  noteworthy  that  « 
the  total  expenses  only  8  per  cent,  or  about   10  cent 
and  year,  is  devoted  to  that  sylvicultural  pan  of  tl  1 
to  planting,  sowing,  gathering  seed,  nursery  w 
50  per  cent  is  paid  out   \^v  supervision,  and 
cutting  and  logging. 

It  is  also  of  interest  in  this  connection  to  note  thai 
not  by  a  shortsighted,  stingy  policj   of  reti 
penses,  but  by  a  liberal  policy  thai  11 

to  furnish  a  steady  and  cheap  supply  of  timber  to  hundrt 
mills,  cheap  firewood  to  the  whole  people,  and  a  n< 
which,  if  regarded  as  an  interest   on  the  valut 


254  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

property,  makes  this,  at  the  prevailing  3  per  cent  rate,  worth 
$130,000,000,  or  $65  per  acre,  for  land  which  without  the  forest 
cover  would  hardly  bring  $10,  even  in  these  densely  settled 
countries. 

Instead  of  expending  only  80  cents  per  acre  and  year,  as 
was  done  as  late  as  the  year  i860,  Bavaria  now  expends  more 
than  double  this  amount,  pays  higher  salaries,  and  maintains  a 
larger  force  of  steady  workers ;  it  spends  about  a  quarter  of  a 
million  per  year  on  roads  and  other  permanent  improvements, 
and  at  the  same  time  improves  its  woods,  has  more  standing 
timber  of  larger  average  size,  has  more  wood  growing,  and  re- 
ceives more  money  from  this  resource  than  ever  before. 

Preservation  of  forests  must  come  about  largely  by  the  abso- 
lute ownership  of  lands,  either  by  the  nation,  State,  or  associ- 
ated capital.  The  management  must  be  controlled  by  national 
or  State  supervisors,  amenable  to  definite  forest  laws.  Pres- 
ervation of  the  forest  does  not  mean  to  keep  the  ax  out  of  the 
woods,  but  to  use  it  rationally.  In  all  natural  woodlands 
must  a  constant  culling  be  practiced,  in  order  to  insure  the 
greatest  possible  thriftiness  in  timber  growth.  This  selective 
thinning  out  by  felling  the  mature  or  diseased  individuals  or 
undesirable  species  is  for  the  present  the  only  one  practicable 
form  of  management. 

If  in  any  region  certain  kinds  are  particularly  wanted  in  aid 
of  certain  industries,  such  would,  without  delay,  be  planted  or 
sown,  especially  when  younger  growth  is  preferred,  like  in  the 
pulp  industry.  The  paper  mulberry  makes  a  very  rapid 
growth,  thrives  in  any  soil,  and  is  well  suited  for  the  South. 

Large  areas  in  the  State  of  Tennessee  are  unfit  for  profit- 
able agriculture  from  poverty  of  the  soil.  The  spare  popula- 
tion wears  out  a  toilsome  life  without  hope  for  improvement. 
Schools  of  the  lowest  grade  and  inadequate  to  effect  intel- 
lectual improvement  give  no  encouragement  in  some  kind  of 
home  industry,  and  they  are  ultimately  forced  to  seek  employ- 
ment in  the  mines.  The  legitimate  remedy  would  be  to  put 
such  districts  under  forest  culture.  The  timber  question  is 
a  vital  point  in  the  life  of  the  coal-mining  industry  in  the  Cum- 
berland Mountains,  and  not  less  so  to  the  iron,  copper,  and 
other  industries  in  East  Tennessee,  and  a  promising  field  is 


Philosophy  of  Botaht. 

open  here  to  capital  in  buying  up  such  tracts  f  I  culture. 

Many  tracts  of  land  in  East  and  Middle  Tcni 
cessively  rugged  that  only  here  and  there  may  small 
admit  of  plowing.     The  surface,  although  in  the  main  l< 
is  full  of  rocks  of  all  sizes,  like  a  mighty  convulsion  ha 
up  the  surface  of  the  earth.     The  cause  of  tin-  phenom 
is    the    geological    structure,    consisting    of  king    thin 

strata  of  fossil  limestone  and  shale,  which,  unequall) 
and  the  latter  partly  washed  out.  causes  displacements  ui 
all  degrees  of  angles,  and  this  rough-and-tumble  aspect.     The 
surface  is  so  deeply  rifted  that  the  far-reaching  cedar  I 
find  moisture  in  the  depth  when  the  surface  is  parched. 
region  is  naturally  reserved  for  the  cedar,  especially 
is  also  unfavorable  for  the  growth  of  other  CMiiin  :  ount 

of  the  great  dryness  of  the  air  in  the  summer  season  in  the 
middle  division  of  the  State.     Cedar  and  hackberry  would  be 
the  forest  composition.     Very  recently  an  enterprise  has 
planned  which,  if  successfully  carried  into  execution,   would 
immensely   benefit   our   State.     An    association    composed   of 
citizens    of    several    States,    known    under    the    name    of    the 
National  Park  Association,  has  addressed  a  petition 
gress    explaining   the    desirability   of    establishing    a    national 
park  in  the  Southern  Appalachian  region.      Petition 
that  upon  unquestionable  authority  of  our  foremost  b 
like  Prof.  A.  Gray,  Professor  Sargent,  and  others,  no  mor< 
able  reservation  could  be  selected  anywhere  within  the  bounda- 
ries of  the  United  States  than  the  one  to  he  described  here 
after.     There  is  a  greater  diversity  of  hardwoods  and  conifers 
within   limited   areas   in   the   Southern   Appalachian    Moui 
chain  in  the  grandest  development  of  growth  than  could  be 
gathered  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  or  in  the  latitude 
adelphia,  from  the  Atlantic   Coast   to  the   mountains 
orado. 

This  area  is  also  blessed  with  the  embellishment  of  the  ■ 
gorgeous  and  peculiar  species  of  herbaceous  plant-,  and  m 
ploration  of  those  high  summits  will  always  have  in  the  t 
of  the  lover  of  nature's  scenic  grandeur  emotions 
ment  and  fascination. 

The  forests  of  this  region  are  all  of  a  "  mixed  Maud. 


256  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

the  English  version  of  the  German  term  "  bestand."  They 
are  in  no  part  made  up  of  but  one  single  kind,  but  of  conifers 
and  hardwoods  intermingled  in  very  diverse  proportions. 

Now,  before  the  extension  into  this  region  of  extensive  rail- 
road lines  and  intersections,  and  the  intrusion  of  numerous 
forest-destroying  mining  operations,  would  yet  be  an  oppor- 
tunity to  secure  large  and  coherent  tracts  of  mountain  lands 
in  the  virgin  state  of  nature. 

The  forest,  once  destroyed,  will  within  the  borders  of  culture 
not  spontaneously  restore  itself,  as  we  have  learned  from  ex- 
perience on  the  old  continent.  We  also  know  that  artificial 
reafforestation  is  a  slow  process,  calling  for  lifetime  energy  and 
expenditure  of  succeeding  generations.  Government  aid  and 
direction  has  to  be  depended  on  in  such  operations,  which 
do  not  yield  an  immediate  compensation.  Moreover,  the  gov- 
ernment alone  can  clothe  its  officials  with  such  authority  as 
will  be  necessary  to  protect  such  territories  against  destruc- 
tive inroads.  The  areas  as  presently  planned,  cover  the  heads 
of  all  the  water  courses  flowing  west  into  the  valley  of  East 
Tennessee.  These  in  their  descent,  cutting  narrow  gulches 
through  the  rugged  mountain  masses  in  grades  of  several 
hundred  feet  from  their  heads  to  the  flood  level  of  the  valley 
rivers,  represent  an  available  amount  of  energy  representing 
millions  of  horse  power.  The  continuance  of  this  energy  de- 
pends entirely  on  the  preservation  of  the  forests  at  their 
sources.  They  are  the  guardians  of  the  industrial  life  of  East 
Tennessee.  Yet  another  quality  peculiar  to  this  region  is  its 
unexcelled  suitableness  for  health  resorts.  The  abundant 
springs  draw  their  cool  and  limpid  waters  from  silicated  or 
granitic  rocks ;  are  free  from  calcareous,  magnesian,  or  alumi- 
nous impurities.  Ferrugineous  springs,  on  the/  contrary,  are 
not  infrequent.  .Other  blessings  are  the  absence  of  the  mos- 
quito plague  and  freedom  from  malaria. 

As  the  forests  are  nearly  half  and  half  composed  of  conifers, 
the  air  is  charged  with  balsamic  fragrance  and  richly  ozonized. 
The  obnoxious  Northwestern  gales  do  not  reach  over  that  far 
East,  although  they  are  yet  felt  on  the  Cumberland  plateau. 
On  the  contrary,  warm  and  moist  breezes  are  frequently  wafted 
up  from  the  Caribbean. 


Philosophy  of  Botj 

The  mildness  of  the  climate  makes  this  region  B 
all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  even  the  highest  summit 
but    a    month    or    six    weeks    snow    covered.     The    We 
national  parks  are,  from  the  rigor  of  their  prol< 

period,  accessible  for  only  about  five  months. 

Duly  central  to  the  Northern  sea©  >ast,   I  oled 
Louis,  and  New  Orleans,  could  this  region  be  readily  :     . 
by  millions  of  people  within  one  day's  travel. 

The  tracts,  as  now  proposed  for  a  reservation,  He  I 
32  to  35  degrees  north  latitude,  and  82  to  85  western   I 
tude.     The    central    or    highest    crests    of    the     Balsam 
Smoky   Mountains  traverse   it   from   southwi 
with  the  greatest  expanse  of  surface  to  the  east      I  i. 
survey  takes  in  a  strip  of  AlcMinn.  Blount,  S< 
Greene  Counties,  in  Tennessee;  nearly  the  whole  <>t"  Graham, 
part  of  Swain  (and  the  Cherokee  reservation),  part  of  Hay- 
wood and  Madison,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  Yancey,  in  North 
Carolina;  or  probably  2,000,000  acres  of  mountain  lands. 

The  State  of  Tennessee  ought  to  make  a  strenuoti 
that  all  the  headwaters  of  the  Hiwassee  and  I  >coe  l\;\<- 
their  ultimate  sources  in  North  Carolina  and  ould 

also  be  included  in  this  reservation.     The  greatest  opportuni- 
ties for  mining  enterprises  are  open  in  this  region  for  buil 
stones,   granites,   and   slate    quarrying,   beside-   gold,   CO] 
iron,  asbestos,  and  gems,  not  to  speak  of  the  natural  and 
ing  products  of  a  national  forest  management 

The  success  of  this  enterprise  lies  within  the  power  of,  and 
depends  upon,  the  appreciation  of  its  merits  by  the  pi 
Congress.     Since  the  writing  of  these  lines  the  present   I 
second  General  Assembly  of  the  State  passed  a  joint   r« 
tion  by  both  houses  memorializing  Congress  througl 
resentatives,  and  petitioning  for  a  national  Lrrant.     Tin-  I 
eral  Assembly  declared  its  readine-s  to  cede  all 
against  compensation  to  present  owner-  to  the  Governmer 
the  United  States,  recognizing  its  absolute  domain. 

The  State  of  Georgia  has  also  sent  a  similar  I  in- 

struction to  its  Representatives  in  Congri 
a  joint  action  of  the  three  States  of  North  Carolina,  T 
and  Georgia. 
9 


258  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

I  have  adjoined  below  the  message  of  the  President  to  Con- 
gress, January  16,  1901,  in  relation  to  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tain Reservation,  Secretary  Wilson's  report  on  the  contem- 
plated National  Park,  and  Senator  Pritchard's  bill  for  the  ap- 
propriation of  $5,000,000  for  the  execution  of  the  Appalachian 
Park  Bill : 

To  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives: 

T  transmit  herewith,  for  the  members  of  the  Congress,  a  letter  from 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  in  which  he  presents  a  preliminary  report 
of  investigations  upon  the  forests  of  the  Southern  Appalachian  Moun- 
tain region.  Upon  the  basis  of  facts  established  by  this  investigation 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  recommends  the  purchase  of  land  for  a 
national  forest  reserve  in  Western  North  Carolina,  Eastern  Tennessee, 
and  adjacent  States.  I  recommend  to  the  favorable  consideration  of 
Congress  the  reasons  upon  which  this  recommendation  rests. 

WILLIAM  M'KINLEY. 

Washington,  D.  C,  January  3.  1901. 
The  President: 

The  bill  making  appropriations  for  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  on  June  30,  1901,  provides  that  a  "  sum  not  to 
exceed  five  thousand  dollars  may,  in  the  discretion  of  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  be  used  to  investigate  the  forest  conditions  in  the  Southern 
Appalachian  Mountain  region  of  Western  North  Carolina  and  adjacent 
States."  In  accordance  with  this  provision,  I  have  made  a  thorough  in- 
a  estigation  of  the  forests  in  a  portion  of  the  Southern  Appalachian 
Mountains,  as  directed  above,  including  an  estimate  of  the  amount  and 
condition  of  the  standing  timber,  an  inquiry  as  to  the  suitability  of  this 
region  for  a  national  park  as  proposed  by  the  Appalachian  National 
Park  Association,  and  an  examination  of  the  validity  of  the  reasons 
advanced  by  Its  advocates  for  the  creation  of  such  a  park.  In  this  task 
I  have  received  generous  and  effective  cooperation  and  assistance, 
through  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  from  the  Department  of 
the  Interior,  which  recognized  in  this  way  the  deep  and  widely-diffused 
public  interest  in  the  plan. 

The  forest  investigation  was  made  to  include  a  study  of  the  charac- 
ter and  distribution  of  the  species  of  timber  trees,  the  density  and  value 
of  forest  growth,  the  extent  to  which  the  timber  has  been  cut  or  dam- 
aged by  fire,  the  size  and  nature  of  the  present  holdings,  the  prices  at 
which  these  forest  lands  can  now  be  purchased,  and  the  general  and 
special  conditions  that  affect  the  prosecution  or  conservative  forestry 
on  a  large  scale. 

The  hydrographic  survey  of  the  region  conducted  by  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  includes  a  general  study  of  its  topographic 
features;  of  the  relation  of  the  soils,  forest  cover,  and  rainfall;   of  the 


Philosophy  of  Bota.w. 

quantity  of  water  flowing  out  of  it  through  the  various  luring 

different  seasons;  and  of  the  influenc  ■  exerted  on  the  rei  :  thH 

flow  by  forest  clearings.    More  than   750  Btream    measures 
already  been  made,  and  much  additional  data  of  Bpeclal  \al 

secured. 

In  addition  to  these  investigations,  I  have  given  thorough  attention 
to  the  arguments  advanced  by  the  movers  for  the  proposed  park  and  to 
those  of  their  opponents,  and  as  a  result  I  am  Btronglj  of  opinion  thai 
this  matter  is  worthy  of  careful  consideration. 

I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  mounted  original  i  iopj 
large  map,  which  shows  in  detail  the  mapping  of  forests  accomplished 
during  the  past  summer  over  an  area  of  nearly  8,000  square  mil- 
full  report  of  the  work  and  of  its  results  is  now  in  preparation  and  will 
be  submitted  for  your  consideration  at  an  early  date.     The   foil 
preliminary   statement   is  made  to   bring  before   you   without   delay    i 
summary  of  the  facts  sufficient  to  set  forth  clearly  the  principal  features 
of  the  region  and  the  plan : 

The  movement  for  the  purchase  and  control  or'  a  !arg<  area  of  for- 
est land  in  the  East  by  the  government  has  chiefly  contemplated  8  na- 
tional park.  The  idea  of  a  national  park  is  conservation.  Dot  use;  that 
of  a  forest  reserve,  conservation  by  use.  I  have,  therefore,  to  i 
mend  a  forest  reserve  instead  of  a  park.  It  is  fully  shown  by  the  in- 
vestigation that  such  a  reserve  would  be  self-supporting  from  the  Bale 
of  timber  under  wisely-directed  conservative  forestry. 

Extensive  areas  of  hardwood   forests  within   the  region   colored   on 
the  accompanying  map  are  still  in  their  primitive  condition,  and  these 
are  among  the  very  best  and  richest  hardwood  forests  of  the  United 
States.     The  region  in  general  is  better  adapted  for  forestry  than  for 
agricultural  purposes.    It  is  located  about  the  head  waters  of  numer- 
ous   streams — such    as    the    Ohio,    Tennessee,    Savannah,    Yadkin,    and 
Roanoke — which  are  important  buth  for  water  power  and  for  DJ 
tion.     The  general  conditions  within  the  region  are  exceptionally 
vorable  for  the  carrying  on  of  large  operations  in   practical   for< 
and  the  weather  is  suitable  for  lumbering  operations  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year.     It  contains  a  greater  variety  of  hardwood   trees  than  any 
other  region  of  the  United  States,  since  the  Northern  ami  the  Bouthern 
species  here  meet.     It  is  a  region  of  exceptional  beauty  and  pictun 
ness;   and  although  it  would  not  be  easily  accessible  to  visitors  in  all 
raits  at  all  seasons  of  the  yea'\  by  far  the  greater  portion    >f  it 
would  be  easily  reached  and  climatically  pleasant  throughout  the 
It  contains  within  the  forest-covered  areas  no  lai 
mining  operations  which  would  Interfere  with  the  management  of 
a  forest  reserve,  and  yet  there  is  a  sufficient  population  foi   the  ■■■■ 
ing  and  protection  of  the  forests.    Large  lumber  cOmpanl  ipidly 

invading  the  region,  and  the  early  destruction  ol    the   mon 
timber  is  imminent.     Lands  in  this  region   suitable  tor  such   a  I 


260  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

reserve  are  now  generally  held  in  large  bodies  of  from  50,000  to  100,000 
acres,  and  they  can  be  purchased  at  prices  ranging  from  $2  to  $5  per 
acre.  It  is  probable  that  the  average  price  would  not  exceed  $3  per 
acre.  In  explanation  of  the  widespread  and  urgent  demand  for  the  es- 
tablishment in  this  Southern  Appalachian  region  of  a  national  park, 
or  forest  reserves,  it  may  be  added  that  it  contains  the  highest  and 
largest  mountain  masses  and  perhaps  the  wildest  and  most  picturesque 
scenery  east  of  the  Mississippi  River;  that  it  is  a  region  of  perfect 
healthfulness,  already  largely  used  as  a  health  resort  both  summer  and 
winter;  and  that  it  lies  within  little  more  than  a  day's  travel  of  the 
larger  portion  of  the  population  of  this  country. 

The  rapid  consumption  of  our  timber  supplies,  the  extensive  destruc- 
tion of  our  forests  by  fire,  and  the  resulting  increase  in  the  irregularity 
of  the  flow  of  water  in  important  streams  have  served  to  develop  among 
the  people  of  this  country  an  interest  in  forest  problems  which  is  one 
of  the  marked  features  of  the  close  of  the  century.  In  response  to  this 
growing  interest  the  government  has  set  aside  in  the  Western  forest 
reserves  an  area  of  more  than  70,000  square  miles.  There  is  not  a  sin- 
gle government  forest  reserve  in  the  East. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be, 

Very  respectfully, 

JAMES  WILSON,  Secretary. 

APPALACHIAN  PARK  BILL  FOR  THE  APPROPRIATION  OF  FIVE 
MILLION   DOLLARS. 

Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture  is  hereby  empowered  and  directed  to  purchase  land, 
suited  to  the  purposes  of  a  national  forest  reserve,  in  the  Appalachian 
Mountains,  within  the  States  of  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Caro- 
lina, Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Tennessee,  in  total  extent  not  to  exceed 
two  million  acres,  and  to  care  for,  protect,  use,  and  make  accessible  the 
said  forest  reserve  or  any  part  of  it  when  so  purchased. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  is  hereby  empowered  and 
directed  to  make  such  rules  and  regulations  and  establish  such  service 
as  he  may  deem  necessary  for  the  care,  protection,  and  use  of  such  for- 
est reserve,  and  to  sell  such  wood  and  timber  as  may  be  removed  with- 
out injury  to  the  forest;  provided,  that  no  wood  or  timber  shall  be  sold 
otherwise  than  by  public  auction,  except  to  actual  settlers,  and  in  no 
case  at  less  than  the  appraised  value  thereof;  and  provided,  further, 
that  the  proceeds  of  such  sale  shall  be  covered  into  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States. 

Sec.  3.  That  the  sum  of  five  million  dollars,  or  as  much  thereof  as 
may  be  required,  is  hereby  appropriated  for  the  purchase  of  lands  for 
a  national  forest  reserve,  as  hereinbefore  specified,  said  reserve  to  be 
known  as  the  Southern  Appalachian  Forest  Reserve;  and  said  five  mil- 


Philosophy  op  Botany. 

Hon  dollars  shall  be  available  until  the  expiration  of  the  I  lilO- 

1911,  unless  sooner  expended. 


Corresponding  to  the  above  followed  the  joint  enactmenl 

the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Tenness 


AN  ACT  to  give  consent  by  the  State  of  Tennessee  to  the  acquisition 
by  the  United  States  of  such  lands  as  may  be  needed  for  the  i 

lishment  of  a  national  forest  reserve  in  said  State. 

Whereas  it  is  proposed  that  the  Federal  Government  establish  in  the 

high  mountain  region  of  Eastern  Tennessee  and  adjacent  SI 
tional  forest  reserve,  which  will  perpetuate  these  forests  and   I 

preserve  the  head  waters  of  many  important  streams,  ami  which  will 
thus  prove  of  great  and  permanent  benefit  to  the  people  of  this 
and 

Whereas  a  bill  has  been  introduced  in  the  Federal  Congress  provid- 
ing for  the  purchase  of  such  lands  for  such  purposes;  there* 

Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  General   Assembly  of  the   St.. 
Tennssee,  That  the  consent  of  the  State  of  Tennessee  he,  and  is  hereby, 
given  to  the  acquisition  by  the  United  States,  by  purchase,  gift,  or  con- 
demnation, according  to  law,  of  such  lands  in  this  State  as  in  the  opin- 
ion of  the  Federal  Government  may  be  needed  for  the  establishment 
of  such  a  national  forest  reserve  in  that  region;    provided,   that    the 
State  shall  retain  a  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the  United   Stat 
and  over  such  lands  so  far  that  civil  processes  in  all  cases  and  BUCh 
criminal  processes  as  may  issue  under  the  authority  of  the  Stats  a( 
any  person  charged  with  the  commission  of  any  crime  Without  or  within 
said  jurisdiction  may  be  executed  thereon  in  like  manner  as  if  th 
had  not  been  passed;  provided,  further,  that  this  Act  shall  apply  only 
to  lands  in  Tennessee  lying  within  twenty  miles  of  the  North  Carolina 
State  line;  that  all  condemnation  proceedings  herein  provided  shall  bs 
limited  to  lands  now  forest  covered;  and  that  in  all  BUCfa  COndeou 
proceedings  the  right  of  the  Federal  Government  shall  he  limited  to  the 
specific  objects  set  forth  in  this  Act  and  in   the   laws  of  th.'    I 
States  in  regard  to  forest  reserves. 

Sec.  2.  Be  it  further  enacted,  That  power  is  hereby  conferred  opon 
Congress  to  pass  such  laws  as  it  may  deem  necessary  to  the  aCQU 
as  hereinbefore  provided  for  incorporation  in  said   national   for. 
serve  such  forest-covered  lands  lying  in  the  Stat.-  as  in  the  opinion  Of 
the  Federal  Government  may  be  needed  for  this  pun 

Sec.  3.  Be  it  further  enacted.  That  power  is  hereby  conferred  upon 
Congress  to  pass  such  laws  and  to  make  or  provide  for  the  msJtinf  of 
such  rules  and  regulations  of  both  civil  and  criminal  nature  and  pi 
punishment  for  violation  thereof  as  in  its  judgment   may  be  m •.  easary 
for  the  management,  control,  and  protection  of  iUCb  lands  as  may  be 


262  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

from  time  to  time  acquired  by  the  United  States  under  the  provisions 
of  this  Act. 

Sec.  4.  Be  it  further  enacted,  That  this  Act  take  effect  from  and  after 
its  passage,  the  public  welfare  requiring  it. 

Passed  April  16,  1901.  E.  B.  WILSON, 

Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
NEWTON  H.  WHITE, 
Speaker  of  the  Senate. 
Approved  April  22,  1901.  BENTON  M'MILLIN, 

Governor. 

These  are  the  initiatory  steps  by  which  this  priceless  gift  of 
nature,  the  hitherto  undefiled  retreat  of  the  virgin  forest, 
sacred  to  bird  and  beast,  still  the  same  as  it  was  before  the 
encroachment  of  the  white  man,  will  be  preserved  for  the  com- 
ing generations. 

Subject  to  the  greed,  ignorance,  or  carelessness  of  individual 
owners,  the  stately  groves  would  soon  be  rendered  unsightly 
and  worthless  as  dens  and  covers  for  bird  and  beast,  which 
could  not  escape  their  utter  extinction. 

Torrid  knobs  and  blackened  stumps  would  remain  only,  a 
witness  of  human  impiety.  Under  present  auspices  we  will 
soon  see  a  noble  corps  of  custodians,  trained  for  scientific 
management  in  the  forestry  department  of  our  universities, 
employing  and  directing  squads  of  laborers  in  the  utilization, 
preservation,  and  embellishment  of  the  reservation. 


Modern  Thoughts  on  the  Origin,  Evolu 
tion,  and  Significance  of  Life. 


Ihr  Alle  fiihlt  geheimes  Wlrken 
Der  ewig  waltenden  Natur, 
Und  aus  den  untersten  Bezirken 
Schmiegt  sich  herauf  lebend'ge  Spur. 

b  ist  i!..  Theil. 
All  the  secret  working  fepl 
Of  Nature's  ever-guiding  will, 
And  from  the  abyss  deep  and  dark 
Floats  gleaming  up  a  living  spark. 

RECENT  VIEWS  o\  PROTOPLASlJ  AND 
ORIGIN  OE  LIFE. 

By  the  dissection  of  living  plants  and  the  exposure  of  their 
interior  structure  under  the  microscope  by  a  moderate  enli 
ment  a  chambered,  or  so-called  cellular,  structure  is  visible. 
These  chambers  appear  to  be  filled  with  a  transparent,  aqui 
fluid,  ascending-  from  the  root,  and  carrying  along  with  it  un- 
assimilated  nutritive  elements.     It  is  called  cell   - 
of  chlorophyll  are  frequently  floating  in  it.     This  elemei 
the  plant  body  had  been  observed  and  described  befoi 

A  close  observation,  however,  of  any  living  cell  will  n 
another  substance,  mostly  in  the  form  of  a  slimy,   \ 
subsolid  mass,  either  filling  the  whole  cavity,  or  only  clothing 
the  inner  wall  with  a  thin  layer,  or  traversing  in  t li- 
the cavity  of  the  cell.     The  distinct  character  of  this  subst 
was  first  announced  by  Hugo  Mohl  in  [846,  and  called  by  him 
protoplasm. 

This  is,  in  its  general  bearing,  a  verj  well-known,  but  in  ii 
innermost,  nature  a  yet  totally   unexplained,   su  W  • 

know  about  it  to  a  certainty,  that   it   is  the 
alone  of  plants,  but  likewise  of  animals.     The  pro! 
each  cell  also  contains  a  formative  differentiation,  the  nucleu 

From  a  chemical  standpoint  it  is  comp  than 


264  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

four,  but  generally  five,  elements — carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
oxygen,  and  sulphur — forming  the  albuminoids,  the  most  com- 
plex, variable,  and  unstable  chemical  compounds.  Here  we 
see  how,  within  the  cell,  from  the  circulating  nutritive  fluid  the 
plastic  mass,  protoplasm,  gradually  develops. 

The  progress  of  growth  proceeds  in  animals  nearly  uni- 
formly, in  plants  from  the  terminal  vegetative  points — buds — 
and  in  the  cambium  or  peripheral  region  (green  bark).  Thence 
begins  the  differentiation  of  tissues,  and  of  the  whole  series  of 
vegetable  and  animal  bodies,  and  that  mutual  interaction  by 
which  from  the  root  or  stomach  nutritive  elements  are  con- 
veyed and  elaborated.  The  production  of  protoplasm  termi- 
nates in  the  maturing  and  storage  of  such  albuminoids  as 
make  up  the  body  of  seeds,  and  fill  the  cells  of  tubers,  bulbs, 
roots,  and  cambium,  and  provide  for  the  renewal  of  individual 
life  and  nutrition  in  its  infant  state.  None  of  the  secondary 
elements  or  products  possess  an  inherent  vitality.  The  pro- 
teins, which  are  the  most  complex  in  composition,  are  exceed- 
ingly prone  to  decomposition.  The  simpler  hydrocarbons,  like 
lignin,  cellulose,  starch,  the  resins,  only,  are  enduring.  The 
most  obvious  of  the  protoplasmic  forms  is  the  chlorophyll, 
whose  principal  function  is  the  separation  of  the  carbon  in  the 
process  of  plant  respiration. 

Respecting  the  comparative  quantities  in  the  composition  of 
the  individual  bodies — of  proteinic,  nitrogenated  constitu- 
ents, and  the  nonnitrogenated  simpler  ones — we  observe  re- 
verse relation.  While  in  plants  the  amount  of  albuminoids  is 
comparatively  insignificant,  we  find  the  bodies  of  animals 
nearly  exclusively  proteinic.  Plants  increase  constantly,  dur- 
ing the  vegetative  period,  their  supply  in  albumen,  until  they 
enter  the  resting  period.  Animals  have,  without  interruption, 
to  renew  it,  lest  they  perish. 

It  is  meet  to  remember  that  all  protoplasmic  bodies  are  sub- 
ject to  a  constant  process  of  elimination  and  renewal,  and  that 
the  suspension  of  either  effects  their  immediate  death,  which 
under  all  circumstances  is  their  ultimate  fate. 

Very  different  is  the  problem  of  the  origin  of  the  primitive 
protoplasm  when  it  takes  its  rise  without  the  medium  of  pre- 
existing protoplasmic  bodies.     This  process  is  called  the  "  gen- 


Philosophy  of  Botany,  -*•'• 

eratio  equivoca  or  spontanea"  by  the  older  authors;  by  the 

moderns,  "  archegonia." 
The  term  "  archegony  "  comprises,  in   a   strictly   scientifit: 

sense,   two   essentially   different    pro, 

"  plasmogony."     Under  the  term  "  autogon)  ,   the 

origin  of  the  most  simple  plasma  body  in  an  inorganic  flu 
i.  e.,  in  such  a  fluid  in  which  those  elements  which  an    I 
for  the   composition   of  the   organic   body   . 
simple   and   constant   solutions;   for    instance,   carboi 
hydrate  of  ammonia,  binary  salts.     Contrariwise,  th< 
would  be  called  "  plasmogony."  if  the  organic  individual  I 
its  rise  in  an  organic  vegetative  fluid — i.  e.,  in  a  fluid  which 
contains  these  essential  elements  in  form  of  complicated  an-! 
unstable   carbon   compounds,   in   solution    (albumen,   carbon- 
hydrates,  etc.). 

The  processes  of  autogony  as  well  as  of  plasm*  .-.  my  ha\ 
yet.  not  been  demonstrated.     Attempts  at  the  solution  of  the 
problem  of  archegony  in  earlier  as  well  as  recent  times  nearl) 
all   refer  not   to  autogony,  but  to  plasmogony.   which   ' 
process  is  of  little  avail  in  reference  to  primordial  organic 
ination.     The  temporary  failure  to  verify  by  experiment  the 
possibility  of  autogony  cannot  have  more  than  a  negative 
ing,  and  does  not  absolutely  prove  that  under  no  circumstai 
such  an  event  ever  could  have  occurred. 

The   ripened   judgment   of  contemporaneous   inves 
tends  to  make  it  clear  that  the  impossibility  as  well  as  tin 
sibility,  can  never  be  brought  to  a  tangible  demonsti 
its  ultimate  inchoative  state.     More  about  this  hereafter. 

Hypotheses  about  a  natural   spontaneous  generation 
advanced  already  in  the  seventh  century  before  our  era  by  the 
leaders    of    the    Ionian    school,    the    three    Milesians     1 1 
Anaximenes,  and  Anaximander.     The  hit  :■ 

important  fundamental  tenets  of  our  modern  monism.  They 
pointed  out  that  a  natural  uniform  law  is  the  source  of  the 
manifold  manifestations,  recognized  the  unity  of  the  whole 
nature,  and  the  constant  transmntati-  ma  i  >f  I  >rms  Blan- 

der allows   that   the   living   creatures    have    i  i    in    tin- 

water,  under  the  influence  of  solar  heat,  and  that  man  ha 
veloped  out  of  fishlike  creatures.     Later  on  we  read  in  the 


266  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

natural  philosophy  of  Heraclitus  and  Empedocles,  and  in  the 
scientific  writings  of  Democritus  and  Aristotle,  allusions  to 
ideas,  in  which  we  recognize  fundamental  principles  of  our 
modern  theory  of  evolution. 

Two  great  and  weighty  fundamental  ideas  of  the  theory  of 
evolution  are  also  presented  in  Genesis,  conceived  by  Moses, 
in  surprising  clearness  and  simplicity — the  conception  of  sepa- 
ration and  differentiation,  and  the  conception  of  progressive 
evolution  or  improvement. 

All  these  views  hitherto  proposed  in  favor  of  a  specific, 
mutually  unconnected  production  by  creation,  lead,  upon  log- 
ical inferences,  to  that  manner  of  reasoning  which  is  under- 
stood as  anthropomorphism.  Under  this  term  the  Creator  is 
conceived  as  an  organism,  conjecturing  after  the  manner  of 
man,  meditating  and  altering  his  plans,  ultimately  carrying  out 
his  designs  like  a  human  architect  would  rear  his  structure. 
The  miraculous  aspect  has  always  been  unsatisfactory  to  those 
of  speculative  mind,  and  was  too  closely  affiliated  to  other 
ancient  mythological  narratives  as  not  to  invite  modified  inter- 
pretations. The  inconceivable  was  prominently  proposed, 
which  is  merely  a  sophistic  evasion,  and  means  to  affirm  that 
one  entertains  no  opinion  at  all  and  declines  to  have  one. 

In  contrast  with  this  complete  scientific  inadequacy  of  the 
creative  hypotheses,  we  are  compelled  to  seek  refuge  in  the 
opposite  theory  of  evolution,  if  we  intend  to  form  a  conception 
serving  the  purpose  of  rationally  acceptable  exposition.  We 
are  forced  and  morally  bound  to  make  such  an  attempt,  even  if 
these  evolutionary  doctrines  should  cast  merely  a  glimmer  of 
probability  upon  a  mechanical  and  natural  origination  of  the 
different  species  of  plants  and  animals,  but  the  more  so  if  they 
are  able  equally  as  plainly  and  simply,  as  also  completely  and 
comprehensively  to  explain  all  related  facts. 

These  evolutionary  theories  are  by  no  means  what  is  often, 
yet  falsely,  pleaded  against  them,  arbitrary  notions  or  products 
of  the  imagination,  applicable  only  to  one  or  the  other  single 
organism ;  they  are  indeed  strictly  scientifically  supported  the- 
ories, resting  upon  a  firm  and  lucid  basis,  whence  the  totality 
of  natural  phenomena  and  especially  the  origin  of  the  organ- 


Philosophy  of  Boi  ajh . 

isms  may  be  explained  in  the  plainesl  manner,  . 
sary  consequences  of  mechanical  natural  pro<  i 

This  theory  is  known  as  the  monistic  or  mechanical 
causal,  because  it  applies  only  mechanical  a 
with   necessity    (causa-   efficientes)    in    the    interpret 
natural  phenomena. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  supernatural  hypothes< 
coincide  with  that  totally  opposite  view  of  the  uni  hich, 

in    contradistinction    to    the    former,    is   called    the    dual 
often  also  teleologic  or  vital,  because  of  its  all* 
merit  of  conditions  after  a  design  planned  upon  usefulness 
efficiency  (causa?  finales). 

The  manner  in  which  science  attempts  to  vindicate  th< 
nistic  theory  leads  to  the  following  considerations: 

Chemistry  shows  us  that  all  known  bodies  ma]  .  by  ana: 
be  resolved  into  a  limited  number  of  elements  or  primary  sub- 
stances ;  such  not  furthermore  resolvable  bodies  are,  • 
bon,   oxygen,   nitrogen,   sulphur,   or   the    divers    metals,    like 
potassium,  natrium,  iron,  gold,  etc.     At  present   we  ktio 
about  seventy-five  such  elements.     The  majority  of  then 
rather  unimportant,  and  of  unfrequent  occurrence;  only  the 
lesser  number  is  generally   distributed,   and   forms   not   only 
most  inorganic  objects,  but  also  all  organic  bodi< 

If  we  compare  those  elements  which  compose  the  bodi< 
organisms  with  those  elements  which  arc  i" « » 1 1 1 1  < I  in  the  inor- 
ganic substances,  we  are  impressed  with  the  fact  that  there 
appears  no  element  in  the  bodies  of  animals  and  plants,  which 
could  not  also  be  found  outside  of  them  in  lifeless  nature. 
There  is  absolutely  no  organic  element. 

Be  it  here  incidentally  remarked  that  all  th< 
ments  are  (most  probably)  only  different  combination  forms 
of  homologous  atoms  of  one  absolutely  simple  prim 
stance,  "  the  Mass."     The  differences  between  element     i 
nized  at  the  present  day.  originate  probabl)    in  tin    circum- 
stance that  these  mass-atoms  are  arranged  in  different  nun 
bers  and  positions:  and  their  atom-groups  or  molecules 
in  different  relations  to  the  universal  ether  which  fills  B] 
The    group-wise    arranged    mutual    affinity    of    tin-    elemen 
speaks  for  this  hypothesis,  which,  however,  ha-  not 


^68  PHILOSOPHY  OF  BOTANY. 

experimentally  demonstrated.  It  is  furthermore  supposed 
that  these  chemical  elements  formed  prior  to  the  formation  of 
planetary  systems,  in  the  evolution  of  star  systems,  under  con- 
ditions of  heat,  higher  than  now  artificially  producible. 

The  chemical  and  physical  differences  existing  between 
organic  and  inorganic  bodies  have  therefore  their  material 
origin  not  in  the  distinct  nature  of  the  component  elements, 
but  in  the  different  way  and  manner  in  which  they  are  aggre- 
gated into  chemical  combinations. 

This  distinct  way  of  composition  conditions,  consecutively 
certain  physical  peculiarities,  especially  in  reference  to  their 
density,  which  at  once  appear  to  open  a  wide  chasm  between 
these  two  groups  of  bodies.  The  formed  inorganic  or  lifeless 
natural  objects,  the  crystals  and  the  amorphous  rocks  are  of  a 
degree  of  density  which  we  call  solid  in  contradistinction  to 
the  fluid  state  of  the  water  or  the  gaseous  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  these  different  states  of  aggrega- 
tion of  the  inorganic  bodies  are  not  at  all  due  to  their  ele- 
mentary nature,  but  are  depending  upon  certain  degrees  of 
their  temperature.  Every  one  of  the  inorganic  solid  elements 
may  be  converted  by  raising  its  temperature  into  the  fluid  or 
molten,  and  by  further  increase  to  the  gaseous  or  elastic  fluid 
state.  Likewise  every  gaseous  body — e.  g.,  carbonic  acid — by 
sufficient  reduction  of  temperature  or  increased  pressure  can 
be  condensed  to  the  fluid,  and  furthermore  to  the  solid,  state. 

In  distinction  from  these  three  conditions  of  density  of  the 
inorganic  substances,  we  find  the  living  bodies  of  all  organ- 
isms, of  plants  as  well  as  animals,  in  a  quite  peculiar  fourth 
state  of  aggregation.  This  one  is  neither  solid  like  a  stone, 
nor  liquid  like  water,  but  keeping  the  middle  between  these 
two  conditions,  of  what  may  be  called  a  firmly  liquid  or  tumid 
consistency.  In  all  living  bodies,  with  no  exception,  is  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  water  bound  up  in  a  peculiar  way  with  solid 
substance,  and  just  by  this  characteristic  combination  of  water 
with  solid  substance  comes  about  the  soft,  neither  hard  nor 
fluid,  consistency  which,  for  the  coming  into  existence  and  the 
mechanical  interpretation  of  the  phenomena  of  life,  is  of  great- 
est importance. 


Philosophy  of  Botahy. 

The  cause  of  this  is  principally  attributable  to  the  chcn 
and  physical  properties  of  one  single  element,  tl> 

Carbon  is,  from  our  point  of  view,  of  all  elemei  •  the 

most  efficient  and  interesting,  because  the  function  of  thii 
ment  plays  the  most  important  r61e  in  the  life  history  i 
plants  and  animals  of  which  wc  have  any  knowledj 
the  element  which,  by  virtue  of  its  peculiar  inclinati< 
formation   of   complicated   combinations   with    the   Othei 
ments,  effects  the  greatest  possible  diversity  of  chemical 
positions,  and  thereby  also  of  the  forms  and  qualities  of  the 
bodies  of  animals  and  plants.     In  combining  with  the  other 
elements  it  forms  an  infinite  series  of  formulas  through  di 
proportions  in  number  and  weight. 

Foremost  in  the  combination  of  carbon  with  these  other 
ments  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen   (with  which  also  >ul- 
phur  and  phosphorus  are  frequently  associated)   arise  those 
extremely  important  compositions  in  which  we  recogniz< 
first  and  indispensable  basis  of  vital  phenomena,  the  albumi- 
nates (proteids). 

Proteinic  substances  have  as  yet  not  been  found  othen 
than  in  single  or  aggregate  bodies  of  definite  forms,  which, 
subject  to  the  laws  of  organic  evolution,  differ,  in  an  ascending 
series,  in  complexity  of  molecular  structure.  ma>^  and  sha] 
external  form,  and  degree  of  development  of  organs  foi 
etative  and  physical   functions. 

Within  the  recollection  of  our  older  botanists  or  brolof 
it  was  firmly  believed  that  the  cell  was  the  ultimate  an:-. 
element  of  bodies,  and  that  the  cells  took  their  origin  directly 
from  inorganic  matter,  under  the  influence  ni  light  and 
Virchow  and  Schleiden  were  the  first  to  make  char  the  en 
ousness  of  this  presumption,  showing  that  no  cell  01 
spontaneously,  but  directly  out  of  another  cell.     "  (  tannifl  cel- 
lula  ex  cellula  "  became  the  biological  maxim. 

With  the  rapid  advance  in  biologic  studies  and  th< 
improved  methods  in  microscopy  it   was  recognized   that   the 
cell  is  a  too  complicated,  too  highly  organized,  and  too  mutable 
formation  for  us,  to  accredit  it  with  the  power  to  bri 
at  once  the  chasm  between  the  organic  and  the  in 

To  remedy  the  discrepancy,  the  attention  was  drawn  to  the 


2^0  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

function  of  the  nucleus,  the  formative  element  of  the  cell,  and 
the  formula  was  changed  to  "  Every  nucleus  from  another 
nucleus." 

The  above-given  term.  "  autogony,"  proposed  by  Haeckel, 
could  merely  serve  to  circumscribe  the  genetic  act  within  the 
nearest  possible  compass,  until  his  discovery  of  the  "  moners," 
the  simplest  living  organisms,  strengthened  our  hopes  to  trace 
up  the  thread  of  life  to  the  present. 

The  first  complete  observations  upon  the  nature  of  a  moner 
(Protogenes  primordialis)  had  been  made  by  him  at  Nizza  in 
1864.  Other  remarkable  moners  have  been  found  by  him 
later  on  the  Canaries  and  Lanzarote,  and  in  1867  in  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar.  (The  complete  life  history  of  one  of  these  Cana- 
rian  moners,  the  orange-colored  Protomyxa  aurantiaca,  with 
illustration,  is  given  in  the  "  Natiirliche  Schopfungs- 
Geschichte,''  of  Ernst  Haeckel,  ninth  edition,  Vol.  I.,  page 
168.)  Also  in  the  German  Ocean,  on  the  Norwegian  coast, 
near  Bergen,  he  found  some  peculiar  moners.  An  interest- 
ing Sweetwater  species  Cienkowski  found,  and  described  it 
under  the  name  "  Vampyreila."  Another  one  Sorakin  found 
and  named  it  "  Gloidium."  Very  recently  the  number  of  these 
organisms  has  been  greatly  augmented  through  the  efforts  of 
other  investigators. 

All  of  them  are  exceedingly  small  corpuscles,  who,  indeed, 
do  not  merit  the  name  of  organisms,  a  term  based  upon  the 
assumption  that  all  living  beings  are  made  up  of  organs,  which, 
like  the  component  parts  of  a  machine,  harmoniously  cooper- 
ate to  effect  the  activity  of  the  whole.  These  moners,  how- 
ever, are  absolutely  without  structure  or  nucleus,  consisting  of 
a  homogeneous  plasma.  The  entire  body  during  their  life- 
time is  nothing  more  than  a  mobile  particle  of  jelly,  without 
a  permanent  form,  a  minute  living  speck  of  an  albuminous 
carbon  compound.  We  assume  this  homogeneous  mass  to 
possess  a  very  complicated  molecular  structure,  which  is,  of 
course,  neither  anatomically  nor  microscopically  demonstrable. 
The  largest  moners  are  of  the  size  of  a  small  pin  head  ;  the 
smallest  are  the  bacteria,  which  in  all  probability  belong  to 
this  order  of  beings.  More  simple  and  imperfect  beings  could 
not  be  conceived. 


Philosophy  of  Boi 

We  have  here  arrived  at  the  limits  of  our  physical  ii 
tion.     The    nature   of   light,    the    prop 
media,  and  the  structure  of  the  human  eye  will  liar.'; 
us  to  penetrate  deeper  into  this  special  in  tion. 

Of  the  bacteria   we  know   little   more  than   their  external 
form,   their   reaction   upon   certain    coloring   substances    which 
render  their  hyaline  bodies  visible  under  the  high  ma 
powers  which  we  have  to  use  to  make  them  visibli 
come  distinguishable  under  culture  in  certain  nutritive  liquids, 
through  peculiar  forms  of  aggregation,  through  rapid  multipli- 
cation by  division,  and  through  the  products  of  their  growth. 
This  growth  is  due  to  the  absorption  of  the  nutritive  fluid 
to  the  subsequent  elimination  of  waste  material. 

In  a  state  of  rest  the  moners  appear  as  minute  globular 
puscles,  either  undiscernable  to  the  naked  eye,  or  merely  the 
size  of  a  small  pin  head,  as  before  state. 1.     Their  facult 
cuting  movements  takes  place  through  the  protrusion 
ular  fingerlike  protuberances  From  the  slimy  surfa  ■'  fine 

radiating   filaments    or    pseudopodia      The    pseudop 
simple,  immediate  continuations  of  the  structureless  albumi- 
nous  mass  which  constitutes  the  entire   body.     We   are   not 
able  to  find  in  it  differentiated  parts,  and   we  can  make  the 
direct  proof  for  the  absolute  homogeneity  of  the  semil 
albuminous   substance  by   observing  them   under   the   m 
scope  in  the  act  of  taking  food.     If  minute  bodies,  acceptable 
to  their  tastes,  such  as  comminuted  organic  substances  or  in- 
fusory  animals,  come  into  actual  contact,  the}   adhere  to  the 
sticky  surface  and  create  an   irritation.     In   res]  tin- 

an  increased  flow  of  the  slimy  substance  toward  that  pa- 
takes  place,  which  ultimately  incloses  it.     Sometimes  a  fun- 
nel-shaped depression  forming  in  the  moner 
purpose.     The   nutriment    is    thereafter   digested   by   diffu 
(endosmosis)    and   what   is   left    unabsorbed   br 
surface  again  in  a  corresponding  way.      Equall)  simple  i 
mode  of  propagation,  winch  is  asexual  or  b)   monogamy 
consists   simply   in    self-division.     Whenever   su  nute 

body  acquires  a  certain  size  from  sufficient  nutrition 
into  two  pieces;  an   annular  constriction   fofms   I  I   the 

division  is  soon  complete. 


272  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

In  other  species,  like  Vampyrella  and  Gloidium,  the  body 
divides  into  four  equal  parts  ;  in  Protomonas  and  Protomyxa 
the  body  at  once  resolves  into  a  great  number  of  globular 
spherules. 

Here,  like  elsewhere,  when  science  transcends  the  limits  of 
the  perceptible  and  the  domain  of  experience,  venturing  into 
the  dark  field  of  the  unknown,  the  investigator  must  ulti- 
mately be  guided  by  an  ingenious  use  of  the  imagination  ;  of 
that  wondrous  faculty  which,  left  to  ramble  uncontrolled,  leads 
us  astray  into  a  wilderness  of  perplexities  and  errors,  a  land  of 
mists  and  shadows ;  but  which,  properly  controlled  by  experi- 
ence and  reflection,  becomes  the  noblest  attribute  of  man,  the 
source  of  poetic  genius,  the  instrument  of  discovery  in 
sciences,  without  the  aid  of  which  Newton  would  never  have 
invented  the  fluxions,  or  Davy  have  discovered  the  earths  and 
alkalis,  nor  Roentgen  the  X  rays,  nor  Columbus  have  found 
another  continent. 

The  clearest  and  best  elaborated  hypothesis  about  organic 
states  preceding  the  moners  is  given  by  Karl  von  Nageli  in 
his  great  work,  "  The  Mechanico-physiological  Theory  of  Evo- 
lution "  ("  Mechanish-physiologische  Theorie  der  Abstam- 
mungslehre  "),  Munich  and  Leipzig,  1884. 

Before  entering  upon  the  micellar*  hypothesis  of  Nageli,  it 
may  be  well  to  state  that  Haeckel  had  made  distinction  be- 
tween those  "  Beginnings  of  Life  "  based  upon  the  mode  of 
nutriton,  as  phytomoners  and  zoomoners.  The  first  are  built 
up  from  protoplasma,  possessing  the  faculty  to  prepare  plasson 
synthetically  from  inorganic  matter,  converting  the  living 
force  of  sunlight  into  latent  chemical  energy  of  organic  combi- 
nations. 

The  other  class,  or  zoomoners,  are  plasma  eaters,  consist 
of  zooplasma  and  cannot  transmute  inorganic  matter  into 
plasma.  They  live  upon  the  plasma  of  the  preformed  phyto- 
moners, and  convert  the  therein  contained  energy  again  into 
heat  and  motion.  To  the  phytomoners  belong  the  Chromaceae, 
and  also  the  hypothetical,  oldest  originators  of  all  organisms, 


*  Micella,  diminutive  of  mica,  a  grain,  crumb,  a  cell,  or  assumed  in- 
termediate state  between  a  molecule  and  a  cell. 


Philosophy  of  Botany. 

the  Protobiens.     He  defines  them  as  very  minute,  living 
ma-granules  proceeding  from  micellar  organization.     Ni 
thinks  that  these  bodies  are  too  minute  to  become  distinguish- 
able  even  under  the  highest  powers.     To  be  more  i    ;• 
quote  three  paragraphs  from  Nageli's  work, referring  the  r< 
to  the  original  work : 

"  Certain  organic  compounds,  among  them  albumen, 
ther  soluble,  despite  their  great  affinity  for  water,  nor  are  they 
fusible,  and  hence  are  produced  in  the  micellar  form.     These 
compounds  are  formed  in  water  where  the  molecules  thai 
immediately   adjoining   each    other    arrange    themselves    into 
incipient  crystals,  or  micella*.      Only  such  of  the   mole 
as  are  formed  subsequently  and  come  into  contact   with  the 
micella,  contribute  to  its  increase  in  size,  while  the  othei 
account  of  their  insolubility,  produce  new  micella-.      For  this 
reason  the  micellae  remain  so  small  that  they  are  invisible, 
with  the  microscope. 

"  On  account  of  their  great  affinity  for  water  the  micella 
surround  themselves  with  a  thick  film  of  it.  The  attraction 
of  these  micella?  for  matter  of  their  own  kind  is  felt  outsid 
this  film.  Hence  the  micellae  with  their  films  unite  themselves 
into  solid  masses  permeated  with  water,  unless  other  i 
overcome  attraction.  The  internal  and  external  constitution 
of  micellar  bodies  depends  essentially  upon  the  size,  form,  and 
dynamic  nature  of  their  micellae,  since  on  these  factors  depends 
the  original  arrangement  of  the  micella',  and  the  insertion  in 
proper  order  of  those  formed  later. 

"The  micella)  of  albumen  or  plasma  are  susceptible  of  tin- 
greatest   diversity   of  form,   size,   and    chemical    com] 
since  they  originate  from  unlike  mixtures  oi  various  albumen 
compounds,  and  besides  are  mixed  with  various  organic 
inorganic   substances.     For  this   reason   the   plasma   bcha 
both  chemically  and  physically,  in  many  unlike  ways,  and  in 
consequence  of  the  variable  relation  ^i  the  micella'  I 
the  plasma  shows  all  degrees  of  micellar  solution  up  to  quite 
solid  masses.     Within  the  plasma  masses  the  production  "f 
albumen  goes  on  more  easily  under  the  influence  ^i  their  in 
ular  forces  than  in  the  liquid  without.     Hence  the  compounds 
present   in   the   organic   substratum    and    capable   ^i   forming 


2^4  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

albumen  enter  preferably  into  the  masses  of  plasma,  and  by 
intussusception  of  micellae  of  albumen  cause  growth.  Here 
life  exists  in  its  simplest  form." 

Spontaneous  generation  presupposes  the  origin  of  plasma- 
micellae  from  molecules,  hence  cannot  be  brought  about  by 
solutions  from  albumens  or  peptones,  since  these  are  micellar 
solutions.  Life  presupposes  the  intussusception  of  plasma- 
micellae;  hence  it  ceases  as  soon  as  the  arrangement  of  micel- 
lae is  so  far  disordered  by  injurious  influences  as  to  render 
that  process  of  growth  impossible.  The  resulting  organism 
must  be  perfectly  simple,  a  mass  of  plasma  with  micellae  as  yet 
unarranged,  because  any  organization  without  a  preceding 
organizing  activity  is  inconceivable.  For  this  reason  known 
organisms  cannot  have  originated  spontaneously;  a  kingdom 
of  simpler  things  must  have  preceded  them.  (Probien — the 
suborganic  kingdom.) 

Haeckel  (f<  Natiirliche  Schopfungs-Geschichte,"  Vol.  II., 
pages  430-431)  says:  "  I  believe,  with  Nageli,  it  is  very  prob- 
able that  the  like  acts  of  spontaneous  generation  have  repeated 
themselves  very  often,  invariably  when  the  necessary  condi- 
tions emerged  in  the  inorganic  nature.  They  may  even  occur- 
now,  daily,  without  our  being  able  to  observe  them  directly 
with  our  inadequate  methods  of  research.  We  are  entirely 
unacquainted  with  those  conditions ;  and  the  spontaneous  orig- 
ination of  minute  probionts,  of  minute  plasson-granules,  which 
elude  discovery  even  with  the  highest  magnifying  powers,  may 
fail  to  be  demonstrable  even  amid  the  best  chances.  In  refer- 
ence to  the  contemporary  moners  we  have  the  choice  between 
the  following  conclusions:  Either  they  descend,  indeed, 
•directly  from  the  first  originated  (or  created)  oldest  moners, 
and  then  they  must  have  propagated  and  preserved  them- 
selves, since  many  millions  of  years  in  the  original  form  of 
minute,  simple,  plasma  corpuscles,  or  the  moners  of  the  pres- 
ent day  have  come  into  existence  in  the  course  of  the  organic 
evolution  of  the  earth,  by  repeated  acts  of  spontaneous  gener- 
ation, and  then  there  is  no  physical  obstacle  imaginable,  why 
it  should  not  be  repeated  infinitely  often." 

Pending  this  question  the  reflection  is  forced  upon  us  that 
in  those  immemorial  preaeval  times,  terrestrial  conditions  ex- 


Philosophy  01    Boi 

isted,  quite  different  from  those  of  the  present  day,  v.  hull  may 
have  facilitated  autogony. 

The  organic  history  of  this  globe  must  have  had  if 
ning  in  an  age  when  the  oceans  were  united,  forming  an  unin- 
terrupted surface,  and  the  temperature  of  the  wat< 
ciently  decreased  to  allow  the  formation  of  albumtno 
pounds.     This  may  have  been  not  far  from  the  boiling  point, 
as  we  even  now  find  living  organisms  in   natural   sprii 
high  temperature.     I  picture  in  my  fantasy  the  incumbei 
mosphere  charged  with  irrespirable  gases,  filled  with  immense 
masses  of  vapors  inclosing  the  ocean  in   impenetrable  dark- 
ness, which  was  relieved  only  by  the  diffuse  phosph 
of    floating    luminous    corpuscles;    the    waters    charged    with 
mineral    solutions,   ready   for   precipitation    with   pn 
refrigeration;  the  sky  luminous   From   uninterrupted  electric 
flashes;  and  the  atmosphere  trembling  from  incessanl 
of  thunder,  and  whirled  about  by  furious  cyclom 

Then  already  may  possibly  the  hot  waters  of  the  primordial 
oceans  have  been  peopled  by  living  being-.     Their  high  tem- 
peratures may  even  have  been  favorable  to  their  coming  into 
existence,  as  we  even  nowadays  rind   oscillatories   and 
in  hot  springs  at  140°.     In  the  geysers  of  Yellowstone 
live  Conferva  major  and  Phormidium  laminosum,  flourishing 
by  1620  to  1760,  while  the  albumen  of  the  higher 
coagulates  at   1620   Fahr.     As  tlure  is  reason  to  belie> 
above  stated,  that  the  surface  oi  the  globe  was  shrouded  in 
darkness,  or  only  illuminated  by  diffused  light,  until  tin 
broke  through  the  clottds,  we  must  take  into  account  that  the 
gelatinous  bodies  of  the  schizomycetes  and  algae  oi  this  time 
contained  a  bluish  green  substance;  the  phycocyanin  in  <ht 
fusion  through  their  bodies,  whose  carbon-absorbing  fui 
was  not  confined  to  any  granular  or  cellular  formation,  like  the 
chlorophyll,  which  came  into  existence  afterwards  with  the 
higher  vegetable  forms  and  for  whose  action  a  \\  Humi- 

liation sufficed. 

It  is  a  permissible  speculation  that  the  enzyi  r  1  -rm 

less  ferments  may  have  played  an  important  part  in  tl 
■of  life.     We  have  long  known  of  a  number  of  album;: 
soluble    substances    which    chemists    called 


276  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

shapeless  and  formless  ferments,  which,  like  yeast — a  well- 
known  organized  ferment — excite  fermentation  in  organic 
solutions  and  cause  the  splitting  up  of  their  molecular  struc- 
ture, without  experiencing  an  increase  of  their  own  volume. 
By  this  they  imitate  or  replace  the  vital  action  of  the  formed 
fermenters. 

Judging  from  the  ordinary  standard  those  shapeless  bodies 
would  be  considered  as  lifeless;  yet  it  is  very  doubtful  if 
they  should  as  such  be  held,  for  they  develop  properties  in 
common  with  those  of  the  living  ferments.  Whenever  the 
solutions  of  these  enzymes  are  exposed  to  temperatures  of 
1600  to  2io°  they  become  inefficient  just  as  well  as  the  organ- 
ized ferments.  They  are  also  killed  by  alcohol,  corrosive  sub- 
limate, and  all  the  substances  which  destroy  the  vitality  of 
the  bacteria.  Thus  is  established  a  difference  between  living 
and  dead  enzymes. 

Recently  an  experiment  was  made  by  Buchner,  to  obtain 
under  high  pressure  a  juice  from  living  ferment-organisms, 
with  subsequent  nitration.  The  fluid  prepared  in  this  way 
has  had  the  same  effect,  like  the  living  structural  ferments. 

Thus  we  are  led  to  conjecture  a  still  lower  grade  of  vital 
processes,  some  kind  of  chemical  life  which  eludes  our  micro- 
scopical investigations. 

The  immense  quantities  of  carbon  now  deposited  in  the 
devonian  and  carboniferous  strata  and  the  oil-soaked  lime- 
stones and  sandstones  of  the  silurian,  circulated  as  carbonic 
dioxide,  mixed  with  sulphureted  hydrogen  gas.  Immense 
periods  may  have  passed  before  the  rays  of  the  sun  broke 
through  the  clouds,  before  chlorophyll-bearing  tissues  could 
proceed  to  depurate  the  air  of  the  carbon.  The  geometric  reg- 
ularity of  the  organic  forms  of  that  era,  the  protophytae 
(diatomace*  and  cosmariaceae),  and  of  the  protozoa  (radi- 
olarise)  and  the  large  percentage  of  mineral  matter,  silica, 
and  carbonate  of  lime,  contained  in  their  texture,  give  them  a 
great  resemblance  to  certain  systems  of  crystallization — snow- 
flakes  or  augitic  forms  of  crystals. 

The  doctrine  of  protoplasm  as  advanced  by  Huxley  and 
the  recent  success  in  synthetic  chemistry  in  the  production  of 
some  organic  compounds,  like  urea  or  indigo,  hold  out  the 


Philosophy  op  Botajty. 

promise  of  the  manufacture  of  living  matter  by  artificial  m 
Yet  none  of  these  numerous  laboratory  products  ha 
the  quality  of  protoplasm— a  substance  endowed  witl 

evolving  power  of  continuous  change. 

All  the  artificially  produced  proteids  are  definite  and  h< 
geneous  chemical  compounds,  without  thai  fundan. 
organic  characteristic  of  a  definite  external  limitation. 

Bacteria    and    moners    are    without     recognizable    internal 
structure,   but  greatly  specialized   in    size   and    Bharx 
they  show  functions  of  psychical  force,  be  it  only  tin 
of  food. 

From  these  lowest  forms  onward  we  observe  with  inci 
ing  clearness  the  organic  progress— irritability  and 
diversity  of  structure,  sexuality,   sensibility,   in.. re   and   more 
specialization  in  digestive,  reproductive,  and  nervous 
and  ultimately  the  intellectual  or  psychical  faculties. 

The   continuity  of  evolution  represented    in   th< 
of  species  is  rerepresented  in  the  genesis  of  individual  In  i 
embryonic    development,    when    during    fetal    life    the    ai 
tral  stages  are  gradually  passed  through,  a  ]>r- >cess  pi 
the  validity  of  the  laws  of  inheritance  and   adaptation 
togeny. 

At  this  point  we  are  brought  in  contact  with   the   higl 
problems   not   only   of   biology,   but   also   of   philosophy,    the 
psychical  question. 

The  individual  existence  of  organ  isms  takes  its  ■ 
in  the  moment  of  fertilization  of  the  ovum,  through  the  v.. 
scopically    small    spermatic    cell.     An    Important    d 
made  recently  by  Pfeffer  demonstrated  thai  the  mutual 
tion  between  the  spermatozoa  and  ovum  is  effected  bj  chem- 
ical affinity.     No  other  act  in  organic  life  demon  mort 
convincingly  the  importance  and  efficiency  ^i  matter,  when  we 
contemplate  how  the  physical  and   intellectual  development 
not  only  of  the  newly  generated   being,   hut   also  ol    bil 
scendants,  for  indefinite  time  is  therein   predetermined     The 
minuteness   and   simplicity  of   the   external    Structure   oi   this 
cell  demand  an  indeterminable  complicity               molecular 
composition. 

Indications  of  a  psychical  energy  are  noticeable  low 


2*78  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

stage  of  organization.  M.  Romanes,  in  his  zoological  scale, 
assigns  the  first  manifestations  of  surprise  and  fear  to  the 
larvae  of  insects  and  annelids;  but  according  to  A.  Binet  thi  > 
emotion  is  proper  also  to  infusories.  If  a  drop  of  acetic  aci  J 
be  introduced  beneath  the  glass  slide  in  a  preparation  contain- 
ing quantities  of  infusories,  the  latter,  will  at  once  be  seen  o 
flee  in  all  directions  like  a  flock  of  frightened  sheep. 

Mobius  thinks  that  memory  is  one  of  the  most  elemental  y 
and  primitive  psychological  facts,  already  observable  in  the 
ciliated  infusories.  He  properly  remarks  that  every  time  '<.  n 
animal  repeats  the  same  action  under  influence  of  the  same 
excitation  that  fact  proves  that  the  animal  is  possessed  •  )f 
memory.  According  to  Verworn  even  rhizopods  are  endowi  d 
with  primary  instincts,  as  he  demonstrates  in  the  conduct  of 
the  Difflugia  urceolata,  which  constructs  an  envelope  out  of 
sand  particles  for  its  offspring,  before  it  passes  out  of  its  body 
by  division. 

To  find  such  complete  psychical  activity  in  the  history  of 
these  low  organisms  becomes  less  surprising  when  we  call  to 
mind  that,  agreeable  to  the  idea  of  evolution  now  accepted,  a 
higher  animal  is  nothing  more  than  a  colony  of  protozoans. 
Every  one  of  the  cells  composing  such  an  animal  has  retained 
its  primitive  properties,  giving  them  a  higher  degree  of  perfec- 
tion by  division  of  labor  and  by  selection.  The  epithelial  cells 
that  secrete  the  nails  and  the  hair  are  organisms  perfected  with 
reference  to  the  secretion  of  protective  parts.  Similarly,  the 
cells  of  the  brain  are  organisms  that  have  been  perfected  with 
reference  to  psychical  attributes. 

I  wish  to  close  this  sketch  of  protoplasm  with  some  remarks 
on  the  mechanism  of  the  cerebral  functions  and  ultimate  infer- 
ences in  reference  to  the  psychical  problem. 

Considering  that  the  human  cerebral  mass,  weighing  3  4 
pounds,  consists  of  material  of  the  most  impressible  and  versa- 
tile molecular  composition,  with  the  supra-addition  of  an  im- 
mensely complicated  structure,  with  a  supply  of  blood  for  its 
nutrition  and  repair,  amounting  to  one-third  of  the  supply  for 
the  whole  body,  it  is  evident  that  a  motor  center  is  provided, 
able  to  evolve  great  effects. 

Microscopical     cerebral     anatomy     and    psycho-physiology 


Philosophy  oi   Botany. 

have  within  the  last  twenty-five  years  reached  importai 
suits.      The   differentiation    and   localization   of   the    mol 
sensitive,  and  intellectual  functions  has  been  determii 
is  estimated  that  the  gray  or  conical  substance  contains  fr<  ra 
500  to  t,ooo  millions  of  ganglia  or  cells,  each  of  which  nuns 
from  5  to  10  nerve  fibers  to  receive  external  impression! 
to   intercommunicate   them.     Thus   we    see   a    field   • 
which  the  most  vivid  fantas)  could  not  survey. 

I  venture,  with  some  diffidence  In  my  ability  •■ 
short  sketch  the  mechanism  which  combined  with  the  ph) 
chemical  processes  effects  those  cerebral  functions  which   are 
comprehend  as  psychical  activities,  consciousness  and  n 

The  speculative  or  metaphysical  procedure  has  from  th< 
motest  days  to  this  time  always  been  attempted  in  two  totally 
different    and    opposite    ways.     The    dualist i- 
elements,  body  and  soul,  whereby  the  body  presides  over  the 
vegetative  and   animal   functions   and   the   soul    1  -    the 

hegemony  over  all  the  intellectual  faculties,  retaining 
consciousness  and  permanence  after  its  separation   from   the 
body  by  death. 

The  other,  or  monistic,  view  declare-   for  the  inseparable 
unity  of  both,  and,  repudiating  the  intrusion  of  dogmatic  ele- 
ments as  parts  of  argumentation,  defends  its  position  by  means 
of  the  exact  natural  sciences,  facts  sustained   by  anal 
dissection,  the  microscope,  and  psychological  experiment. 

From  this  source  we  know  that  the  faculty  to  think  ai 
move  depends  upon  the  intact  state  of  nervous  cells  and  fi 
and  that  the  entire  psychology  is  identical  with  the  anatomy 
and  physiology  of  the  nervous  system. 

We  know  now  with  considerable  detail  how  the  conta 
the  sensual  organs  with  the  outer  world  produ 
activities,  to  be  conducted  along  linear  paths,  the  nei 
nerve  fibers  and  fibrils  to  the  brain,  in  whose  different  depa 
ments    the    peripheral    perceptions    are    elaborated    into    1 
lectual  concepts. 

But  few  years  ago  it  was  believed  that  nerve  fibers  MB 
from  the  great  hemispheres  would,  in  uninterrupted  continu 
extend  to  the  outmost  limits  oi  the  body,  comparing  the  1 
apparatus  with  an  immense  central  station  of  a  telephom 


280  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

tem,  with  millions  of  connections.  The  excitation  of  a  pe- 
ripheral terminal  thus  to  be  reported  in  the  central  station, 
whence  again  the  elaborated  volition  would  be  sent  out  to  a 
subordinate  organ  for  execution. 

This  comparison  is,  however,  not  fully  correct.  The  exact 
anatomy  of  the  brain,  as  has  been  developed  by  the  researches 
of  Waldeyer,  Flechsig  and  Ramony  Cayal,  proves  that  the  for- 
mer view,  accepting  a  division  of  the  function  of  nerve  fibers 
and  nerve  cells,  was  incorrect,  and  that  neither  does  anywhere 
exist  by  itself,  that  there  is  no  fiber  without  a  cell,  and  re- 
versely. The  fiber  is  only  the  long-drawn-out  end  of  the  cell. 
The  uninterrupted  continuance  is  also  a  misconception.  We 
observe  how  a  decapitated  frog  executes  movements  of 
his  legs  to  counteract  the  pricking  of  the  skin  of  his  back. 
From  this  it  is  evident  that  there  are  intermediate  stations 
which  in  part,  at  least,  supplant  the  cerebral  action.  Such  sta- 
tions or  organs  are  called  '"  ganglia."  They  are  the  governing 
seat  of  action  by  all  animals  not  possessed  of  a  cephalic  cere- 
bral system.  Their  actions  are  excited  by  irritation  of  sensitive 
fibers,  and  are  purely  emotional  and  sensational,  and  but  little 
specialized  functions.  From  such  a  ganglionic  point  the  con- 
duct is  carried  forward  by  other  cells  and  fibers  until  the  ulti- 
mate destination  ends  in  the  gray  matter  of  the  hemispheres 
of  the  vertebrates  in  a  specially  designated  sphere.  In  sleep 
or  in  a  state  of  rest  the  ends  of  fibrils  float  freely  in  the  sur- 
rounding plasma,  until  a  moment  of  excitation  arrives,  when 
the  ends  immediately  approach  each  other,  forming  connec- 
tion. Those  links,  serving  as  the  transport  of  the  excitations, 
are  called  (!  neurons  "  and  the  transmitting  force  is  commonly 
called  "  animal  electricity."  The  velocity  of  transportation 
has  been  experimentally  tested,  never  to  exceed  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  meters  per  second,  not  exceeding  the  velocity 
of  a  rapidly  moving  express  train.  In  the  same  space  of  time 
which  elapses  between  the  prick  of  a  needle  at  the  point  of  the 
index  finger  and  its  appearance  in  consciousness  a  telegram 
would  cross  the  Atlantic.  Neural  and  physical  electricity 
must  be  forces  of  different  kinds.  Many  of  the  nervous  func- 
tions of  the  highest  organizations  are  confined  to  the  gan- 
glionic systems,  and  fulfill  within  this  circuit  their  activities 


Philosophy  oi    Boi  a.\y. 

concerned  in  nutrition,  circulation,  respiration,  and  reproduc 

tion,  and  communicate  only  indirectly  with  the  hemisp] 

but  directly  with  the  spinal  cord,  medulla  elong 

lum,  and  corpora  quadrigemina,  which  art-  the  c<  I  the 

organic  functions. 

These   divisions   are   fully  developed    in   the   newborn   hu- 
man infant  and  in  perfect  functional  activity.      Wrv  difl 
is  at  the  same  time  the  state  of  development   of  the   I 
spheres,  which  are  the  seat  of  the  sense  perception  in  intel- 
lectual   activity.     While   an   infant   shows   tin-   livelii 
est  in  the  means  employed  to  gratify  his  physical  want-.  I 
mains  in  a  state  of  intellectual  imbecility  for  months,  and 
pass  before  he  reaches  maturity.     The  cause  of  this  lie-  in  the 
circumstance  that  in  the  gray  substance  of  tin-  newborn  in- 
fant are,  as  yet,  comparatively  but  few  cells  with  extended 
necting  fibril  ends.     Not  before  the  lapse  of  -<>me  time  do 
the  corresponding  nerve   ends  of  the   sense   organs   adi 
sufficiently  to  approach  and  come  in  contact   with  th< 
fibers.     First  to  develop  are  the  olfactory,  ami  at  last  i: 
ditory  nerves,  to  proceed  from  the  base  of  the  brain  up 
into  the  cortical  sphere. 

Although  thus  the  psychical  activities,  with  the  awakening 
of  consciousness,  are  herewith  initiated,  the  sphere  of  volition 
is   as  yet  very  limited;   for,  as  only  one-third   of   the   hemi- 
spheres are  assigned  to  the  reception  of  sense  percepti* 
which  the  other  two-thirds  are  not  at  all  concerned,  th< 
remain  yet  for  one  whole  month  completely  undevel 
are  yet  in  no  way  connected  with  the  other  cerebral  c< 
and  conductive  structures.     Not  before  the  regions  <■!  th< 
cial  sense  organs  have  completely  finished  their  development, 
commences  the  evolution   in  those  belated   part-.      It    ifl  now 
that  millions  of  fibers  extend  from  the  sensual  Sphere  into  the 
other  two  regions  to  intercross  with  one  another,  t--  i 
the  muscular  action,  to  combine  with  Stored-Up  pert 
concepts,  to  execute  all  the  manifestation-  ^i  the  intelta 
emit  their  command  to  every  division  ^i  the  body  undei 
control    of   volition.     These   parts    are   called    th< 
centers — the  workshop  of  the  mind. 

The  herewith  presented  theory  of  mind  is  based  npofl 


282  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

anatomical  structure  of  the  brain,  and  has  been  fully  attested 
in  the  clinical  practice  as  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
cause  of  intellectual  disturbances.  It  is  the  immense  pre- 
ponderance of  the  association  centers  over  all  the  other  cere- 
bral divisions  which  secures  the  intellectual  superiority  of  man 
over  the  highest  intelligences  of  all  other  animals,  in  neither 
one  of  which  a  like  relation  occurs.  Lesions,  mechanical  or 
pathological,  in  the  association  centers  are  the  source  of  mental 
disturbances.  Should  conducting  channels  in  any  other  part 
of  the  body  happen  to  take  place,  anaesthesia  or  paralysis  re- 
sults in  the  affected  parts,  consciousness  and  intelligence  re- 
maining intact.  Injury  to  the  sensitive  spheres  produces  loss 
of  the  respective  sensual  perceptions  of  sight,  hearing,  etc., 
but  disturbances  in  the  associated  regions  means  intellectual 
aberration. 

In  respect  to  the  evolution  of  the  human  brain  and  mind, 
the  lower  animals  seemingly  are  at  some  advantage  in  achiev- 
ing so  soon  after  birth  the  faculty  of  taking  care  of  themselves, 
and  perfecting  the  cerebral  integration  in  an  incomparably 
shorter  period  than  man  does. 

This  apparent  tardiness  is,  however,  nothing  more  or  less 
than  a  prolonged  plasticity  and  long-continued  receptivity  for 
cell  production  and  extension  of  association  tissue  and  storage 
of  sense  and  reflective  impressions. 

Other  conditions  being  equal,  it  is  the  prevalence  of  this 
quality  which  conditions  the  differentiation  not  only  between 
individuals,  but  also  between  the  races.  The  dark-colored 
tribes  attain  to  sexual  and  intellectual  fullness  much  earlier, 
greatly  to  a  disadvantage  in  regard  to  docility  and  training. 
Under  this  aspect  I  accept  the  view  of  Alexander  von  Hum- 
boldt on  the  differentiation  of  man:  "Mankind  presents  a 
graduation  into  more  docile,  higher  cultivated,  through  intel- 
lectual culture  more  ennobled,  but  not  unconditionally  nobler 
races.  All  are  in  the  same  measure  destined  to  enjoy  liberty, 
which  in  the  more  barbarous  conditions  consists  in  personal 
independence  and  in  the  civilized  state,  under  the  protection 
of  political  institutions,  secures  for  all  equal  rights."  Diver- 
sity of  adaptation,  conditions  of  climate  accelerate  or  retard 
the  social  progress,  but  all  have  to  struggle  for  its  achieve- 
ment under  the  slow  and  severe  process  of  social  evolution. 


Philosophy  01  Botany. 

This  is  the  physico-mechanical   provision    for   th< 
plishment  of  cerebral  functions,  as  Far  as  our  pn 
ical   studies  have   made  char.     The   ad    itself  of   thi 
sion    of    molecular    motion    into    consciousm  II    of 

things  outside  of  us — objective  consciousnes  A  the 

internal  processes  of  self-consciousness  in  gradatioi 
degree,  is  yet  an  unsolved  problem,  tempting  the  inventive 
of  the  speculative  mind. 

The  modern  monism  accords  the  origin  of  the  whole  uni 
verse  to  an  absolute  Unity  and  Essence  whose  quality  the  hu- 
man mind  has  no  means  of  investigating,  which  we  aim  * 
press  as  the  union  of  matter,  motion,  and  mind,  tl  ntial 

realities  which  never  and  nowhere  exist  separately  mere 

functions  of  one  or  the  other,  but  are  coexistent  and  uni\  • 

Matter  is  the  extended,  space-filling,  indestructible  reality, 
subject  to  gravitation,  appearing  in  three   different 
tions — the  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous — and  in  about  seventy 
elementary  forms.     We   recognize   in  the  atom   the  ultimate 
divisibility   of   the   chemical   elements;   in   the   molecule   the 
limit  of  divisibility,  without  change  of  its  chemical  pn >]><  • 
in  the  advance  of  the  combination  of  those  molecules,  first,  the 
stable  elements  of  the  mineral   kingdom:  pr  g  in  the 

scale  of  evolution,  we  advance  to  the  multifarious  and  mutable 
hydrocarbon  compounds,  which  are  the  substratum  of  tl 
ganic  creation,  the  most  complex  of  which  arc  the  prol 
and   albuminoids,   which,   while   some   of   them    may    DC   arti- 
ficially produced  by  synthesis,  by  -till  further  recompounding 
appear  as  protoplasma,  a  living,  organized  substance,  whose 
continuance  depends  on  an  uninterrupted  exchanj 
stituent  molecules  by  the  process  of  nutrition  and  eltminat 
and  is  subject  to  death  and  decay  whenever  this  metabolisnc 
is  suspended  while  it  is  in  an  active  state  of  growth.     It  has 
been  suggested  by  Lester  Ward  that  the  ultima! 
of  albuminoids  to  perfect  the  constitutionality  of  protop 
is  no  longer  dependent  on  chemical  affinity,  but   follows 
law  of   molar  attraction   or  gravitation,   and    COI 
tility.     This  may  serve  to  account  for  their  extreme  instability. 
Contractile  tissue  and  muscular  fiber  follow, 

The  second  reality  is  motion,  or  function  of  the  ether, 


284  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

sidered  by  physicists  an  "  imponderable  matter,"  of  which 
we  cannot  form  any  sensual  conception,  and  whose  existence 
we  deduce  from  its  functions — light,  electricity,  magnetism, 
and  radiant  heat — which  are  mutually  convertible  energies  and 
indestructible.  We  can  only  give  it  the  attribute  "  ethereal," 
since  it  is  not  comparable  with  any  of  the  qualities  of  ponder- 
able matter.  Ether  is  the  supporter  and  transmitter  of  all 
modes  of  motion,  the  harmonizer  of  cosmical  processes.  Po- 
tential and  actual  energy,  heat  and  electricity,  are  in  the  same 
constant  play  of  alternations  as  the  molecular  chemism  of 
the  elements,  and  controlled  by  the  laws  of  the  preservation 
of  energy  and  matter,  and  are  always  the  same  quantitatively. 

As  a  third  reality  we  conceive  mind  as  a  cosmic  energy.  In 
its  action  upon  the  psychic  organs  of  organisms  it  effects  con- 
sciousness, the  idea  of  the  ego,  which,  with  its  percepts,  sensa- 
tions, concepts,  memories,  desires,  and  volitions,  we,  by 
traditional  acceptance,  know  as  the  soul,  a  metaphysical  en- 
tity, and  which  we  have  been  taught  to  consider  as  different 
from  the  body,  although  with  widely  differing  opinions  as  re- 
gards their  mutual  relations. 

This  cosmic  mind  can  possibly  have  no  semblance  to  the 
highest  intelligence  we  know  of,  the  human  mind. 

The  human  mind  lives,  so  to  speak,  within  a  triple  environ- 
ment of  its  expansiveness. 

We  are  aware  of  the  outer  world  by  sensual  perceptions, 
out  of  which,  in  another  cerebral  department,  the  percepts 
are  transformed  into  concepts,  construed  into  thoughts  and 
ideas,  processes,  which  ultimately  enable  our  reflective  ca- 
pacity to  understand  that  what  we  think  we  know  of  the  world 
outside  of  us  is  only  a  reflected  image  of  the  reality  of  things ; 
but  what  all  things  may  be  by  themselves,  beyond  the  inter- 
pretations of  our  senses,  we  are  utterly  in  the  dark,  without  a 
ray  of  hope  or  probability  of  ever  passing  this  limitation. 

It  appears  to  me  that  the  cosmic  mind,  unlimited  as  we  as- 
sume it  to  be  in  its  expanse,  must  also  be  beyond  all  estima- 
tion, penetrating,  knowing  the  inside  of  things  as  well  as  their 
outer  appearances.  The  only  revelation  from  the  sacred 
books  of  the  East  we  are  assured  to  have  been  given  concern- 
ing it,  was  given  but  once — to  Moses  on  Sinai — in  the  words  * 


Philosophy  of  Botaht. 

*  1  am  that  I  am."     (The  translation  from  the  Hebr< 
am"  is  not  correct.     It  is  meant:  "The  essence  I  am 
am  the  true  essence  of  things.")     The  oldest  of  the  Brahmanic 
sacred  books,  "The  Upanishads,"  records  a  similar  shorl 
tence,  which  expresses  the  deepest  meaning  of  their  relij 
ideas:  "Tat  tuam  asi  "—-"Thy  own  self  is  the  divinity."    The 
philosophies,  both  of  Greece  and  of  India,  started  before  the 
days  of  Homer  or  Solomon  from  a  common  point-   namely, 
from  the  conviction  that  our  ordinary  knowledge,  depending 
upon  the  report  of  the  senses,  is  uncertain  and  deceitful 
knowledge  according  to  Hindoo  philosophers  depend 
authorities— namely,  sensual  perception  and  deduction. 

An  infinite  intelligence  does  not  depend  on  our  mind  : 
esses,  on  induction  and  deduction;  it  is  the  power  of  intui- 
tion, and  its  effect  is  causation. 

I  think  it  is  not  an  illegitimate  analogy  to  compare  the  func- 
tions of  the  brain  with  the  respirators   process  of  the  li 
It   calls  for  an   uninterrupted   vital   process   to   maintain    the 
blood  corpuscles  in  a  state  of  receptivity  for  the  proces 
oxidation,  on  which  depends  the  whole  process  of   rei 
and  elimination.     We  know,  on  the  other  hand,  that  th 
currents  of  measurable  intensities  are  constantly  generated  in 
the  whole  nervous  system,  perhaps  thereby  producing  the  con- 
dition of  maturity  for  the  intussusception  of  the  cosmic  mind 
force  manifesting  itself  as  consciousness.     The   limit 
all  individualized  substances  and  the  delineation  of  all  forms  in 
the  organic  and  inorganic  world  and  the  persistence  of  inherit- 
ance of  specific  properties  or  qualities  belong  in  the 
•of  this  mind  force. 

It  pictures  the  flowery  congelation  of  the  watery  vapor  on 
the  freezing  window  pane,  prescribes  the  angles  and  con 
of  the  forming  crystal. 

It  may  affect  protoplasm  in   inconceivable  paths  to  some 
kind  of  sensation  in  the  plant,  to  emotion  in  the  lower  animals, 
.and  ultimately  guide  the  intricate   process  of   i 
light  up  to  the  highest  spheres  of  our  ideal  It 

stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  whole  of  the  cosmos 
•consciousness  does  to  plain  consciousness,  repn  divin 

•omniscience. 


286  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

"  Ob  wohl  Natur  sich  selbst  erkennt?  " 

— Goethe,  Faust. 

May  not  Nature  be  self-conscious? 

In  rhythmic  swells  like  ocean  waves  flows  by  the  current  of 
history.  The  past  fifty  years  presented  a  period  of  unparal- 
leled material  progress  in  all  civilized  countries.  The  advance 
in  mechanical  and  technical  operations  in  transportation 
and  production  was  so  immense  that  they  would  nec- 
essarily imply  a  new  valuation  of  human  life.  It  is  the  out- 
come of  the  progress  of  the  natural  sciences.  The  measure  of 
its  value  can  only  be  taken  by  a  parallelization  with  moral 
progress,  on  which  rest  the  security,  peace,  and  happiness  of 
society.  The  evident  disproportion  in  these  two  kinds  of  ad- 
vances is  due  to  the  different  nature  of  motor  forces,  the  real- 
istic or  materialistic  on  the  one  side,  and  the  idealistic  on  the 
other.  Neither  one  is,  of  itself,  either  good  or  bad,  and  their 
efficiency  depends  upon  the  direction  of  the  impetus  with 
which  they  are  started. 

The  materialist  subjugates  the  forces  of  nature  for  material 
purposes,  without  definite  reference  to  their  bearing  on  the 
character  and  moral  standing  of  the  individual  or  the  commu- 
nity. The  character  of  this  force  is  purely  intellectual.  It 
has  an  egoistic  tendency. 

The  idealist  is  moved  by  sympathetic  impulses.  The 
psychical  impulse  originates  in  the  sympathetic  and  allied 
nervous  system ;  the  intellectual  sphere  is  a  mere  consulting 
— often  a  reluctant — aid.  Sympathetic  feeling  is  preexistent : 
in  the  course  of  evolution  it  is  very  likely  active  before  the  de- 
velopment of  nervous  systems,  and  inherent  to  the  unspecial- 
ized  nerve  matter.  Its  ultimate  judgments  and  aspirations 
turn  to  the  realization  of  the  highest  truth,  goodness,  beauty, 
and  justice. 

The  realist  finds  the  anchorage  of  his  judgments  in  condi- 
tions as  they  are  actually  presented;  the  idealist  forms  trans- 
cendental estimates — how  things  ought  to  be — and  judges 
them  by  this  standard.  The  realist  finds  security  in  direct 
observation ;  the  idealist  is  swayed  by  sentiment.  The  one 
operates  with  the  intellect ;  the  other,  with  emotion.     Realism 


Philosophy  oj   Botais 


«v 


consequently  advances  the  sciences;  idealism,  philosoph; 
ligion,  history.     In  the  logical  procedure  realism  | 

dnctively;  idealism,  deductively. 

Never  was,  in  a  short  interval  of  time, this  division  of 
energy  more  clearly  denned  than  in  the  teachings  of  P 
Aristotle — men   of   such   eminent    wisdom    thai    theii 
remained  as  guiding  stars  for  these  two  factions  of  philosophy 
for  twenty  centuries. 

It  seems  to  fit  the  occasion   to  explain   the  principal 
tudes  of  mind,  instinct  and  intelligence. 

In  his  work  on  "Origin  of  Species,"  Darwin  gives  th< 
lowing  definition  of  instinct:     "An  action  which  we  ours< 
should  require  experience  to  enable  us  to  perform,  when  per- 
formed by  an  animal,  more  especially  very  young  mirs.  without 
any  experience,  and  when  performed  by  many  individuals  in 
the  same  way,  without  knowing  for  what   purp<  per- 

formed, is  usually  said  to  be  instinctive.     As  all  instinct-  show 
a  trace  of  selective  qualities,  a  trace  oi  reasoning  p<  w  i  r  has 
to  be  conceded,  even  to  the  lowest  one>."     1 1c  further  qualified 
this  tenet  by  the  following  doctrines : 

i.  The  instincts  of  the  species  differ  with  individuals,  ami 
are  in  the  same  way  subject  to  variation  a-  arc  the  morpho- 
logical marks  of  bodily  formation. 

2.  These  variations  are  by  inheritance  in  part  transfi 

the  descendants,  and  in  the  succession  <>f  generations  accumu- 
lated and  confirmed. 

3.  Selection  (artificial  as  well  as  natural)  exercises  ami 
these  hereditary  variations  of  vital  activities  a  preferen 
continuing  the  most  useful  and  abandoning  the  less  suitable 
modifications. 

4.  The  divergence  of  physical  characters,   thus  origii 
leads  to  the  continuity  of  succession  in  the  same  man: 
origin  of  new  instincts  as  does  the  divergence  of  morph 
ical  characters  produce  new  species. 

The  scholastic  mediaeval  psychologic  views— which  even  yet 
have    adherents — made    an    absolute    distinction 
psychical  activity  of  animals  and  man.  calling  the  former 
stinct"  (implanted)  and  the  latter  "  reason/1  judj 
cording  to  the  Mosaic  historj  of  creation,  every  -  I  am 


288  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

mal  received  a  certain  measure  of  intelligence,  just  sufficient 
for  its  protection  and  maintenance.  The  latter  opinion  we  find 
plainest  expressed  in  the  works  of  Thomas  ab  Aquina,  a 
medieval  saint  and  celebrated  doctor  of  theology,  and  inter- 
preter of  the  works  of  Aristotle. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  instincts  are  infallible  guides  of 
action.  This  is,  however,  far  from  being  true  to  its  full  ex- 
tent. They  often  lead  to  great  injury  to  the  individual,  and 
even  destruction  of  large  masses.  They  are  sufficient  only  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  species  in  the  lower  orders,  who  dis- 
pose of  an  immense  reproductivity.  A  phase  of  selective  ac- 
tion, the  germ  of  reason,  is,  as  above  mooted,  traceable  very 
early  in  the  course  of  evolution.  A  similar  relation  is  manifest 
also  in  the  unconscious  (not  instinctive)  actions  of  man.  The 
execution  of,  for  instance,  a  sonata  may  pass  on  in  a  dormant 
state  of  reason,  as  far  as  memory  of  melody,  but  the  expression 
of  pathos  or  affection  must  be  rendered  in  full  consciousness  or 
the  performance  will  be  a  failure. 

Of  instincts  there  are  innumerable  varieties — as  many,  in- 
deed, as  there  are  species  of  animals.  All  may  be  distinguished 
on  two  fundamental  principles,  as  primary  and  secondary. 

Primary  instincts  are  the  general  lower  impulses,  which 
irom  the  beginning  of  organic  life  existed  in  the  unconscious 
state  of  the  "  psychoplasma  "  as  inherent  qualities — self-pres- 
ervation (protection  and  nutrition),  and  propagation  (coitus 
and  rearing  of  the  young).  These  two  fundamental  motors 
of  organic  life,  hunger  and  love,  have  originated  uncon- 
sciously, without  the  access  of  reason  or  intelligence,  but  have 
afterwards,  in  the  course  of  evolution,  by  man  and  the  higher 
animals  become  objects  of  consciousness. 

A  reverse  relation  governs  the  secondary  instincts.  These 
riave  primarily  come  about  by  intelligent  adaptation,  by 
rational  thinking  and  reflection,  and  by  appropriate  conscious 
action.  Gradually  they  became  habitual  and  unconsciously 
effective,  and  appear  now  in  the  descendants  through  inher- 
itance as  congenital  qualities. 

The  first  authorities  in  physiology  and  animal  psychology 
nave  now  arrived  at  the  nearly  uniform  agreement  that 
there  is  no  qualitative,  but  only  a  quantitative,  difference  be- 


I'HILOSOI'in    OF   II..I   , 

tween  the  souls  of  men  and  animals.     The  movementi 
and  actions,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest,  are  determii 
antecedent  physiological  states.     The  changes  whicl 
moment  take  place  in  consciousness  are  produced  by  an  in 
finitude  of  previous   experiences,   registered   in   the  nervous 
structure,  cooperating  with  the  immediate  impressions  on  the 
senses;  the  effects  of  these  combined  factors  being  in  • 
case  qualified  by  the  physical  state-,  general  or  local,  of  th 
ganism. 

The  current  tenet  respecting  the  freedom  of  the  will  is  "  that 
every  one  is  at  liberty  to  do  what  he  desires  to  do."     All  a. hint 
this;  however,  the  real  proposition  involved   in  the  ■ 
free  will  is,  whether  every  one  is  at  liberty  to  desire  or  n 
desire.     The   mainspring  of  desires,   the   plr 
has  to  respond  to  the  solution  of  this  question. 

Herbert     Spencer     expresses     himself     thus:     "Psychical 
changes  either  conform  to  law  or  they  do  not.     If  the)  do  not 
conform  to  law,  any  work  on  psychical  inquiry  is  sheer  non 
sense;  no  science  of  psychology  is  possible.     If  they  do 
form  to  law,  there  cannot  be  any  such  thing  as  free  will." 

The  intellectual  expression  of  the  will  we  find  in  its  influ- 
ence  on   consciousness.     The    normal    state   of    consciousness 
supposes  diffusion,  with  the  work  of  the  brain  diffused.     The 
will  can  localize  the  work  of  the  brain  to  special  regions, 
may  affect  different  elements,  spread  through  the  mass  of  en- 
cephalon,  to  a  working  in  harmony,  to  the  exclusion  of  tin- 
others.     This    attitude    of    the    mind    constitutes    attention 
Consumption  of  stored-up  energy  is  called  in  aid  for  the 
fection  of  this  effort,  which  is  only  transient  and  soon  bi 
about  relaxation.     This  is  the  culmination  of  mind  em 

As  the  greatest  multitude  of  vital  actions  are  ever  return- 
ing repetitions  of  actions  of  the  same  quality,  they  become 
habitual,    instinctive,    unconscious.     The    combination    **i    the 
mind  elements  subserving  these  unconscious  actioi 
tutes  the  instinct  mechanisms  of  the  brains.      That  such  in- 
stinct  mechanisms   direct    not    only    the   actions   of   the   l< 
animals,  but   also  the   higher  organisms,   including   man 
daily  experience  in  the  process  of  training,  through  whicl 
convert    intellectually-conceived    action-    into    unconsciousl) 
10 


290 


Philosophy  of  Botany. 


transpiring  ones.  Such  actions  are  walking,  riding,  singing, 
speaking,  piano  playing,  and  almost  all  intellectual  actions. 
These  acquired  unconscious  faculties  are  not  transmissible  to 
descendants  by  inheritance,  although  this  had  been  the  process 
by  which  instincts  had  originally  been  built  up. 

The  inherited  mechanisms  of  instinct  have,  in  the  course 
of  evolution,  been  superseded  by  an  organ  of  educability,  the 
evolution  of  the  organs  of  the  mind,  the  great  hemispheres  of 
the  brain.  The  annexed  diagrams  give  a  graphic  illustration 
of  the  gradual  expansion  and  preponderance  of  the  intellectual 
over  the  vegetative,  purely  instinctive,  reflex,  and  emotional 
organs  and  functions. 


Comparative  sketch  of  cerebral  structure  of  Fish,  Reptile,  Bird,  Mammal, 
and  Man,  viewed  laterally  (A)  and  from  above  (B)  ;  of,  olfactory  ;  cr, 
hemispheres  ;  ol,  corpus  callosum  ;  cb,  cerebellum  ;  m,  medulla  oblongata. 
—After  Le  Conte. 


Philosophy  oj   I 


.••I  w  ■, . 


Schematic  illustration  of  the  cerebral  increase  by  the  different 

vertebrates,  projected  in  supraposition  :  o/,  olfactory  lobe       -  rum  ; 

op,  corpus  callosum  or  median  sphere  ;  menschy  man  mam- 

mal ;  vogel,  bird.     (The  median  sphere  progresses  in  evoluti 
plexity  of  structure  and  increasing  number  of  component  elements. 

Satiated  (as  we  now  are,  almost)  by  the  dail)  recurrent  . 
of  inventive  genius,  and  influx  of  material   riches,   we  stand 
listening  on  the  shore  of  time,  and  watching,  for  ear  and  eye 
perceive  a  new  swell  and  the  distant  rumble  of  another  * 
the  first  ripples  of  which  indicate  its  idealistic  nature,  and  in- 
dicate the  demands  of  the  era  of  the  twentieth  century. 

The  peace  conference  at  The  Hague,  the  parliamei 
ligion,   the   societies   for  ethical    culture,   have    initiated 
movements:     Universality    and   unity  of  religious  sentimen 
that  cannot  he  dismembered  by  commanding  «1«  va- 
cation of  the  conflict  between   capital   and   labor  b)    lej 
limiting  the   aggressiveness   of   either:  defining   on    Si 
estimates  the  share  of  labor  in  the  net  profits;  a  stroi 
ernment  with  relinquishment  of  the  policy  of  lenienc)  a 
itation  which  only  serves  to  embolden  violent  and 
ous  characters,   and   encourages   them   to  deeds   mi. 
now  cast  the  whole  nation  in  grin'  and  distresi 
of  the  Aleutian  Islands  to  be  chosen  as  a  place  of 
gerous  criminals:  deliverance  of  the  ^<\v 
ecclesiastic  supervision,  and  the  organ izatioi 
tion  intrusted  to  a  commission,  selected  from  the  | 
and  lecturers  in   the  universities,   technical 
schools,  with  authority  to  make  appointments  and 


292  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

the  courses  of  instruction.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  all  doc- 
trines, including  theology,  have  to  incorporate  into  their  teach- 
ing the  results  of  the  natural  sciences,  as  under  their  discipline 
alone  correct  thinking  can  be  acquired,  science  teaching  should 
on  an  appropriate  scale  be  attempted  in  all  grades.  Abandon- 
ment of  the  missionary  invasion  commends  itself  on  pleas  of 
equity  and  prudence.  Bold  persistence  in  the  traditional  prac- 
tice would  provoke  a  permanent  and  irreconcilable  conflict. 
Should  the  Eastern  nations  be  considered  amenable  to  the 
practices  of  the  international  code,  they  must  be  met  on  terms 
of  complete  political  equality,  as  the  disquieting  introduction 
of  dogmas  alien  to  their  national  character,  religious  and  polit- 
ical institutions  born  of  the  most  ancient  lineage  in  the  world, 
must  naturally  appear  to  them  as  an  unbearable  imposition. 

The  comparative  study  of  religions — Brahmanism,  Bud- 
dhism, Parseeism,  Mohammedanism — has  proven  that  the  ele- 
ments of  pure  ethics  are  the  same  in  all,  and  like  in  Christian- 
ity, and  that  errors  and  abuses  have,  from  human  depravity, 
equally  corrupted  all,  and  that  in  the  progress  of  time  with  a 
strictly  scientific  theosophy  a  harmony  could  be  effected. 

Our  own  grievous  sectarian  ebullitions  are  sorry  witnesses 
of  the  intellectual  neglect  and  stifling  influences  of  dogmatic 
superstitions.  Those  movements  are  also  idealistic  waves, 
but — alas  ! — of  the  briny  flood  that  ruins  fertile  fields  by  its 
overflows. 

Creeds,  brought  down  from  hoary  antiquity  as  symbols  of 
pristine  religious  sentiment,  do  no  longer  express  the  more  ex- 
alted attitude  of  present  generations  toward  the  eternal  and 
infinite,  and  reasonable  and  honest  theologians  are  acknowl- 
edging the  right  of  pure  reason  to  subject  to  criticism  the 
fountains  of  those  creeds,  and  the  so-called  higher  criticism 
is  the  result. 

Epochs  of  history  do  not  follow  now  in  such  tardy  succes- 
sion as  they  did  in  ancient  time  and  still  do  in  uncivilized  re- 
gions, and  the  coming  generation  will  not  have  gone  into  its 
grave  when  the  portentous  commotions  produced  by  the  pres- 
ent idealistic  wave  will  have  subsided  in  compromises  and  new 
financial  and  economic  methods. 


Philosophy  oi   Botahy. 

Thus  the  floods  of  ideas  will  swell  and  sink  as  long  as  the 

deeds  of  men  make  history. 

At  the  Tennessee  Centennial  in  [897  I  attended  the  Lil 
Congress  of  Religions  and  joined  in  the  Lord's  Prayer  with  the 
Hindoo,  Parsee,  Mohammedan,  and  Jew.  I  felt  deeply  im- 
pressed by  the  simple  service,  but  from  the  ab  I  tin- 
ministry  I  became  aware  that  the  morning  star  of  the  union  of 
religions,  was,  for  this  latitude,  yet  below  the  horizon  of 
tarian  strife. 

Constitutions  of  minds  and  ways  of  life  differ  amongst  men 
immensely.     The  increasing  acceptance  of  demonstrable 
may  gradually  effect  a  better  understanding,  and  ultimately 
reconcile  the  still  invincible  adherents  to  tradition.     The  frame 
of  mind  which  prompted  my  philosophy  has  come  to  me  by 
way  of  my  professional  calling,  and  my  early  acquired  habit 
of  pursuing  botanical  studies,  by  which  I  learned  to  l<"»k.  not 
only  to  the  flowery  side  of  things,  but  also  to  their  roots 
fruits,  and  which  removed  me  more  or  less  from  the  fictil 
aspirations  and  pretensions  of  society. 

My  travels  had  no  semblance  with  the  rambles  of  the  roam- 
ing nomad,  who  prostrated  himself  before  the  phantom  of  the 
burning  bush  and  received  a  mission  for  conquest. 

My  path  was  lighted  by  a  milder  sun;  it  led  over  humming 
and  blooming  meadows  to  the  silent  forest,  where  a  friendly 
Dryad  received  me  into  her  shade,  inviting  to  musing 
She  interpreted  to  me  the  sounds  ni  the  rustling  leaves,  the 
chirping  of  the  cicada,  the  melody  ^\  the  sweet  songsti  rs,  and 
enjoined  me  to  search  and  reason. 

Was  kann  der  Mensch  im  Leben  mehr  gewinnen 

Als  dass  sich  Gott  Natur  ihm  offenbare! 

Life's  greatest  glory  la  that  mind 
In  Nature  God  revealed  may  liml. 

As  in  a  dream  it  came  to  my  thoughts  that  the  chan 
picture  spread  before  me  was  the  effect  of  the  alten 
light  and  color,  and  that  no  object  could  be  visible  unlea 
cast  a  shadow;  that  all  evils  that  oppress  earthly  life  I 
necessarv  consequences  of  individualization   and  dil 
tion  in  the  organic  world;  imperfection   to  be  the  com 


294  Philosophy  of  Botany. 

under,  which  alone  individuality  is  granted;  perfection  to  be 
alone  the  attribute  of  that  infinite  reality  who,  divesting  him- 
self of  his  all-embracing  personality,  assumed  the  garb  of  the 
cosmos  and  endowed  it  with  intelligence  and  love,  beauty  and 
justice,  to  adjust  its  inequalities  in  the  process  of  evolution. 

As  the  dewdrop  reposing  on  the  grass  blade,  glittering  in 
the  morning  sun,  reflects  the  splendor  of  the  heavens  and  the 
image  of  the  horizon,  until  with  the  rising  day  it  disappears, 
dissolving  in  the  air,  thus  the  light  of  philosophy  pictures  the 
image  of  ideas  on  a  film  of  protoplasm. 


Dl  H  Httl  LIBRARY 
Nbrfft  Carolina  State  College 


Authors  Consulted  or  Referred  to  in  the 
Philosophy  of  Botany. 


Schleiden,  M.  I.,  Ph.D.,  "  Grundzuge  der   Wisscnschaftli 

Botanik."     Leipzig,  T889. 
Sachs,     Julius,     "  Vorlesungen     fiber     Pflanzenphysiolo 

Leipzig,  1882. 
Strassburger,    Dr.,    Eduard,    "Das    Botanische    Practicum." 

Jena,  1884. 
Cohn,  Dr.,  Ferdinand,  "Die   Pflanze,  Vbrtraege  aus  den 

biete  der  Botanik."     Breslau,  [882. 
De  Candolle,  Alph,  "  Origin e  des  Plantes  Cultfvees."     P 

1SS3. 
Haeckel,   Ernst,  "  Natiirliche   Schopfungs-(  reschichte." 

volumes.     Berlin,  1898. 
Haeckel,  Ernst.  "Die  Weltraethsel."     Ninth  edition.     Bonn, 
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